第11章 定價決策.

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1 第11章 定價決策

2 低成本的洛根(Logan)汽車： 建立世界上最便宜的車子
亞洲、歐洲和美國的領先汽車製造商，致力於創造便便宜的汽車，再大量銷售至印度和其他開發中國家 隸屬法國汽車集團的Renault，以Logan車款成為低價區隔的先鋒 Logan車款現今已在七個國家製造，而這些國家生產的汽車，可銷售至50個國家以上

3 基本的定價概念 單一價格法則(law of one price) 全球市場 國內市場 成本 市場中的顧客都可用最好的價格，購買可能的最佳產品
原油 商用飛機 積體電路 國內市場 成本 競爭者 法規 Heineken的價格在日本是與其他進口商和國內生產商競爭者的比較

4 全球定價目標和策略 全球管理者必須發展系統與政策考量 必須與全球機會與限制一致 定價的目標可能隨產品生命 週期、特定國家的競爭情勢 而調整
價格下限：最低價格 價格上限：最高價格 最佳價格：由客戶購買意願和能力來決定 必須與全球機會與限制一致 定價的目標可能隨產品生命 週期、特定國家的競爭情勢 而調整 There is another important internal consideration besides cost. Internal groups may have conflicting price objectives. Division VPs, regional executives, and country managers are each concerned about profitability at their respective organizational levels. The director of global marketing seeks competitive prices in world markets. The controller and Financial VP are concerned about profits. The manufacturing VP seeks long production runs for maximum manufacturing efficiency. The tax manager is concerned about regulations regarding transfer pricing. The General Counsel considers antitrust regulation. Whether dealing with a single home country market or multiple country markets, marketing managers must develop pricing objectives as well as strategies for achieving those objectives. The overall goal may be to contribute to an internal performance measure such as unit sales, market share, or return on investment. However, a number of pricing issues are unique to global marketing. This chapter will cover many of these issues. In many instances, global competition puts pressure on the pricing policies and related cost structures of domestic companies. The imperative to cut costs—especially fixed costs—is one of the reasons for the growth of outsourcing.

5 全球定價目標和策略 管理者必須決定定價目標的策略 他們必須發展策略以達到這些目標 單位銷售 市場占有率 投資報酬率 滲透定價策略
市場吸脂定價策略 A number of pricing issues are unique to global marketing. The pricing strategy for a particular product may vary from country to country; a product may be positioned as a low-priced, mass-market product in some countries and a premium-priced, niche product in others. Stella Artois beer is a case in point. Pricing objectives may also vary depending on a product's life-cycle stage and the country-specific competitive situation. In making global pricing decisions, it is also necessary to factor in external considerations such as the added cost associated with shipping goods long distances across national boundaries. The issue of global pricing can also be fully integrated in the product-design process, an approach widely used by Japanese companies.

6 市場吸脂與財務目標 市場吸脂 把價格當作變數，以達成財務目標 產品生命週期的上市期階段 奢侈精品
針對特定市場區隔，而此區隔的消費者願意為特定品牌或產品支付高價 LVMH（路易威登）、賓士汽車 By setting a deliberately high price, demand is limited to innovators and early adopters who are willing and able to pay the price. When the product enters the growth stage of the life cycle and competition increases, manufacturers start to cut prices. This strategy has been used consistently in the consumer electronics industry; for example, when Sony introduced the first consumer VCRs in the 1970s, the retail price exceeded $1,000. The same was true when compact disc players were launched in the early 1980s. Within a few years, prices for these products dropped well below $500. This pattern was evident in the fall of 1998, when HDTV sets went on sale in the United States with prices starting at about $7,000. This price both maximizes revenue on limited volume and matches demand to available supply. Now next generation factories in Asia bring in lower costs and increased production capacity. In 2005, Sony introduced a 40-inch HDTV for $3,500; by the end of 2006, comparable sets were selling for about $2,000. By holding price on its autos, Mercedes-Benz opened the door for Toyota to launch its Lexus line and undercut Mercedes.

7 滲透定價策略與非財務目標 滲透定價 把價格視為爭取或維持市場地位的一項競爭武器 以低價取得更大的市場占有率或達成更大的銷售量目標
許多食品公司推出新產品時，因為產品創新程度不夠而無法取得專利的保護，以便在競爭者模仿此產品前，讓市場達到飽和狀態 This Sony example is not included in the 6 edition. However, it was in previous editions and illustrates the concept nicely. The text does refer to Sony in this section. When Sony was developing the Walkman in 1979, initial plans called for a retail price of ¥50,000 ($249) to achieve breakeven. However, it was felt that a price of ¥35,000 ($170) was necessary to attract the all-important youth market segment. After the engineering team conceded that they could trim costs to achieve breakeven volume at a price of ¥40,000, Chairman Akio Morita pushed them further and insisted on a retail price of ¥33,000 ($165) to commemorate Sony’s 33rd anniversary. At that price, even if the initial production run of 60,000 units sold out, the company would lose $35 per unit. The marketing department was convinced the product would fail: Who would want a tape recorder that couldn’t record? Even Yasuo Kuroki, the project manager, hedged his bets: He ordered enough parts for 60,000 units but had only 30,000 actually produced. Although sales were slow immediately following the Walkman’s launch in July 1979, they exploded in late summer. A first-time exporter is unlikely to use penetration pricing. The reason is simple: Penetration pricing often means that the product may be sold at a loss for a certain length of time. Many companies, especially those in the food industry, launch new products that are not innovative enough to qualify for patent protection. When this occurs, penetration pricing is recommended as a means of achieving market saturation before competitors copy the product. Historically many companies that used this type of pricing were located in the Pacific Rim. Scale-efficient plants and low-cost labor allowed these companies to blitz the market. 1979年Sony隨身聽

8 互補產品： 「刮鬍刀與刀片」的定價 產品的銷售主要是仰賴主要產品的銷售
電動遊戲機仰賴電玩軟體的銷售 Gillette之格言：「如果你能從販售刀片賺錢，當然可以送出刮鬍刀架。」 The biggest profits in the video industry come from sales of game software; thus, even though Sony and Microsoft may lose money on console sales, games are generating substantial revenues and profits. This illustrates the notion of companion products: a video game player is worthless without games, a DVD player is worthless without movies, a razor handle is worthless without blades, a cellular phone is worthless without a calling plan, and so on. Sony has sold more than 200 million game consoles since 1994 worldwide but PlayStation game sales have exceeded 800 million units. Cellular service providers like Vodaphone and AT&T buy handsets from Nokia, Motorola, etc. and subsidize the cost by locking customers into long-term contracts and charging extra for text messaging, roaming, etc. In most markets the iPhone sells for $199. However, in India, where customers do not want to be locked in to long-term contracts, the iPhone sells for $600 and is sold exclusively through Airtel, an Indian operator, and Vodaphone. Sales have been slow as consumers choose lower priced phones from competitors. And, a significant number of $199 iPhones are returning from the U.S. in tourist luggage. X-Box遊戲機與運動遊戲

9 目標成本 . • Determine the segment(s) to be targeted, as well as the prices that customers in the segment will be willing to pay. Using market research techniques such as conjoint analysis, the team seeks to better understand how customers will perceive product features and functionalities. • Compute overall target costs with the aim of ensuring the company’s future profitability. • Allocate the target costs to the product’s various functions. Calculate the gap between the target cost and the estimated actual production cost. Think of debits and credits in accounting: Because the target cost is fixed, additional funds allocated to one subassembly team for improving a particular function must come from another subassembly team. • Obey the cardinal rule: If the design team can’t meet the targets, the product should not be launched.

10 計算價格： 成本加成定價與價格階升 價格能否反映產品的品質？ 價格在當地市場是否具有競爭力？
公司該追求市場滲透、市場吸脂或其他定價策略目標？ 公司該提供國際市場的顧客何種折扣（經銷商、現金、數量）或津貼（廣告）？ 是否該對不同的市場區隔訂定不同的價格？ 假如公司的成本增加或降低，可以採用哪些定價策略？此國際市場的需求有無彈性？ 地主國政府會認為此產品的價格合理或過高？ 外國的傾銷法是不是問題？

11 目標成本 成本加成定價法(cost-plus pricing)是將所有直接與間接製造成本與管理費用的合計
彈性成本加成定價法(flexible cost-plus pricing)，用來確認價格在特定市場環境中具有競爭力 Firms that use rigid cost-plus pricing do not take into account the conditions outside of the home country. The obvious advantage of rigid cost-based pricing is its simplicity: Assuming that both internal and external cost figures are readily available, it is relatively easy to arrive at a quote. The disadvantage is that this approach ignores demand and competitive conditions in target markets; the risk is that prices will either be set too high or too low. This method is attractive to inexperienced exporters who are often simply testing the market or responding to market in queries rather than being proactive. Firms that use flexible cost-plus pricing realize that the rigid cost-plus approach can result in severe price escalation, with the unintended result that exports are priced at levels above what customers can pay. Managers who utilize flexible cost-plus pricing are acknowledging the importance of the eight criteria listed earlier. Flexible cost-plus pricing sometimes incorporates the estimated future cost method to establish the future cost for all component elements.

12 環境因素影響定價決策 制定產品售價時，全球行銷人員必須考慮環境因素，包括： 某些環境因素有時會接連發生，如通貨膨脹常伴隨政府的控制而發生
匯率波動 通貨膨脹 政府的控制、補貼和管制 是否有競爭的行為 某些環境因素有時會接連發生，如通貨膨脹常伴隨政府的控制而發生

13 全球定價策略 In global marketing, the task of setting prices is complicated by fluctuating exchange rates. Currency fluctuations can create significant problems and opportunities for the classic international company that exports from the home country. Management faces different decision situations, depending on whether currencies in key markets have strengthened or weakened relative to the home-country currency.

14 通貨膨脹環境 價格水準持續上揚 在通貨膨脹環境中，定價的一個關鍵門檻是保持利潤 貨幣供給的增加 通常反應在一個貨幣貶值的國家進口貨品價格上
In 2002 in the Dominican Republic, the peso lost one-third of its value and prices increased percent. In 2000, in advanced economies was 2.3%; in developing nations, it was 6%; in the transitional economies of Central and Eastern Europe, it was much higher. Russia had a 20% rate. In Brazil, where the inflation rate was as high as 2,000 percent during the late 1980s, retailers sometimes changed prices several times each day. Shelf pricing, rather than individual unit pricing, became the norm throughout the retailing sector nearly 15 years before Wal-Mart arrived in the region. Because their warehouses contained goods that had been bought at different prices, local retailers were forced to invest in sophisticated computer and communications systems to help them keep pace with the volatile financial environment. They utilized sophisticated inventory management software to help them maintain financial control. As Wal-Mart came to Brazil in the mid-1990s, it discovered that local competitors had the technological infrastructure that allowed them to match its aggressive pricing policies. Low inflation presents different challenges in pricing. In the late 1990s, low inflation and strong demand forced U.S. factories to run at or near capacity so firms should have been able to raise prices. However, excess manufacturing capacity in many industries, high unemployment rates in many European countries, and the lingering recession in Asia made it difficult to raise prices. By the end of the decade, globalization, the Internet, low-cost Chinese exports and new cost-consciousness by consumers made it difficult to raise prices.

15 政府控制、補貼和管制 影響公司的定價決策的因素： 地主國政府可能： 強制要求公司在進口貨物前先繳交保證金，而且在一定時間內不得動用 反傾銷法
移轉價格控制法 價格限制 一般價格監控 地主國政府可能： 強制要求公司在進口貨物前先繳交保證金，而且在一定時間內不得動用 限制將獲取的利潤移轉到國外 限制管理者調整價格的能力 When selective controls are imposed, foreign companies are more vulnerable to control than local ones, particularly if the outsiders lack the political influence over government decision that local managers have. For example, Procter & Gamble encountered strict price controls in Venezuela in the late 1980s. Despite increases in the cost of raw materials, P&G was only granted about 50 percent of the price increases it requested; even then, months passed before permission to raise prices was forthcoming. As a result, by 1988, detergent prices in Venezuela were less than what they were in the United States. Government control can also take other forms. As discussed in Chapter 8, companies are sometimes required to deposit funds in a noninterest-bearing escrow account for a specified period of time if they wish to import products. For example, Cintec International, an engineering firm that specializes in restoring historic structures, spent eight years seeking the necessary approval from Egyptian authorities to import special tools to repair a mosque. In addition, the country's port authorities required a deposit of nearly $25,000 before allowing Cintec to import diamond-tipped drills and other special tools. Why would Cintec's management accept such conditions? Cairo is the largest city in the Muslim world, and there are hundreds of centuries-old historic structures in need of repair. The German government historically restricted pricing, especially in the services sector. The recent move towards deregulation has made it possible for foreign providers in telecommunications, air travel, and insurance to enter the market. In retail, changes are the repeal of two laws. One limited discounts to 3% of list price; the other prohibited free gifts, like sturdy shopping bags.

16 競爭的行為 當成本提高，如果競爭者不調整價格來因應，此時公司管理階層調整產品價格的能力，同樣也會受到限制
假如競爭者在低成本的國家進行生產或採購，公司為了保有競爭性，也必須降低價格 In the United States, Levi Strauss & Company is under price pressure from several directions. First, Levi’s faces stiff competition from the Wrangler and Lee brands marketed by VF Corporation. A pair of Wrangler jeans retails for about $20 at Penney's and other department stores, compared with about $30 for a pair of Levi 501s. Second, Levi's two primary retail customers, J.C. Penney and Sears, are aggressively marketing their own private label brands. Finally, designer jeans from Calvin Klein, Polo, and Diesel are enjoying renewed popularity. Exclusive fashion brands, like Lucky and Seven, retails for more than $100 per pair. Outside the United States, thanks to the heritage of the Levi brand and less competition, Levi jeans command premium prices—$80 or more for one pair of 501s. To support the prestigious image, Levi's are sold in boutiques. Not surprisingly, Levi's non-U.S. sales represent about one-third of revenues but more than 50 percent of profits. In an attempt to apply its global experience and enhance the brand in the United States, Levi’s has opened a number of Original Levi's Stores in select American cities. Despite such efforts, Levi’s rang up only $4.1 billion in sales in 2003 compared with $7.1 billion in In 2002, officials announced plans to close six plants and move most of the company's North American production offshore in an effort to cut costs.

17 以外包作為策略性定價的工具 因為產品和市場的競爭，迫使國內製造商紛紛選擇把生產功能外包，轉移到東南亞國家或中南美洲等低成本地區進行
中國享有「世界工廠」之美名 合理化的配銷通路－－Toy 'R' Us（玩具反斗城）進軍日本玩具市場時，即採迴避迂迴通路的作法，採用像美國一樣的倉庫式銷售 Rationalization may include selecting new intermediaries, assigning new responsibilities to old intermediaries or establishing direct marketing.

18 全球定價：三種可行政策 延伸或本國導向 調適性或多國導向 全球導向
賓士努力提高員工生產力，增加低成本的外部供應商數量，並在美國和西班牙投資製造設備，努力朝向消費者導向和競爭導向的定價策略。同時也推出新款的S系列與較低價的E系列轎車

19 延伸或本國導向 要求全球一致的產品價格 進口商必須自行吸收運費及進口關稅
延伸定價因並未隨市場的競爭性與情勢調適，因此該公司在特定國家市場或全球市場的利潤也無法最大化 The extension approach has the advantage of extreme simplicity because no information on competitive or market conditions is required for implementation. The disadvantage of the ethnocentric approach is that it does not respond to the competitive and market conditions of each national market and, therefore, does not maximize the company's profits in each national market or globally. When toymaker Mattel adapted U.S. products for overseas markets, for example, little consideration was given to price levels that resulted when U.S. prices were converted to local currency prices. As a result, Holiday Barbie and some other toys were overpriced in global markets.

20 調適性或多國導向 允許子公司或分公司的管理者，訂定適合當地狀況的價格
套利是以多國導向為定價方式的潛在問題；當兩個國家市場之間的價格差異，公司可以在價格較低的國家購買貨品，再運送到價格較高的市場販售 專門用來醫治非洲愛滋病患的折價藥品，被走私偷運到歐盟，再以極高的價格販售以牟取暴利 IKEA takes a polycentric approach to pricing: While it is company policy to have the lowest price on comparable products in every market, managers in each country set their own prices, which depend in part on local factors such as competition, wages, taxes, and advertising rates. Overall, IKEA’s prices are lowest in the United States, where the company competes with large retailers. Prices are higher in Italy where local competitors tend to be smaller, more upscale furniture stores than those in the U.S. market. Generally, prices are higher in countries where the IKEA brand is strongest. When IKEA opened its first stores in China, the young professional couples, the primary target market, thought prices were too high. The company quickly increased the amount of Chinese products in order to lower prices; today the average Chinese customer spends 300 yen, or about $36. European industrial exporters found that companies using independent distributors were most likely to use polycentric pricing. Arbitrage is also a potential problem with the polycentric approach; when disparities in prices between different country markets exceed the transportation and duty costs separating the markets, enterprising individuals can purchase goods in the lower-price country market and then transport them for sale in markets where higher prices prevail. This is precisely what has happened in both the pharmaceutical and textbook publishing industries. Discounted drugs intended for AIDS patients in Africa have been smuggled into the European Union and sold at a huge profit. Similarly, Pearson (which publishes this text), McGraw-Hill, Thomson, and other publishers typically set lower prices in Europe and Asia than in the United States. The reason is that the publishers use polycentric pricing: They establish prices on a regional or country-by-country basis using per capita income and economic conditions as a guide.

21 全球導向 扮演中間者的角色 定價決策必須考慮許多獨特的市場因素，包括 當地成本 所得水準 競爭程度 當地市場策略
For consumer products, local income levels are critical in the pricing decision. If the product is normally priced well above full manufacturing costs, the global marketer should consider accepting reduced margins and price below prevailing levels in low-income markets. The important point here is that in global marketing there is no such thing as a "normal" margin. Of the three methods described, the geocentric approach is best suited to global competitive strategy. A global competitor will take into account global markets and global competitors in establishing prices. Prices will support global strategy objectives rather than the objective of maximizing performance in a single country.

22 歐洲經理人如何制定 產品的外銷價格

23 灰色市場商品（水貨） 的價格，又稱平行輸入
灰色市場商品(gray market goods)是由未經授權的個人或組織，將有品牌的產品從某國出口到另一個國家銷售 有時灰色產品價格低於合法進口商所訂定 的價格，又稱平行輸入 當產品供給短缺或製造者訂定高價時，就是平行輸入的好機會 This practice, known as parallel importing, occurs when companies employ a polycentric, multinational pricing policy that calls for setting different prices in different country markets. Gray markets can flourish when a product is in short supply, when producers employ skimming strategies in certain markets, or when the goods are subject to substantial markups. For example, in the European pharmaceuticals market, prices vary widely. In the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, for example, parallel imports account for as much as 10 percent of the sales of some pharmaceutical brands. The Internet is emerging as a powerful new tool that allows would-be gray marketers to access pricing information and reach customers.

24 傾銷 以低於特定國家市場的價格銷售進口產品
當進口貨品在美國的售價，低於生產成本加上8%的利潤，或低於原產國的一般價格水準時，就會被認定為傾銷 在美國，若要證明傾銷，必須同時提出價格歧視和傷害的存在事證 Antidumping policy is administered in the U.S. by the U.S. Commerce Dept.; by the European Commission in Europe.

25 聯合定價 指兩家或兩家以上公司的代表，私下協議把產品訂成相似價格
此行為在大多數的情況下是違法的，常用來防止競爭 水平聯合價格(horizontal price fixing)是指製造與銷售同一種產品的競爭業者，同謀維持產品的高價格 垂直聯合價格(vertical price fixing)則是製造商與批發商或零售商勾結（通路的上下游關係），共同確保與維持特定零售價格 In the 1990s, ArcherDanielsMidland (ADM) and several other companies were found guilty of colluding to prop up world prices for an enzyme used in animal feed. The term "horizontal" applies in this instance because ADM and its co-conspirators are all at the same supply-chain "level" (i.e., they are manufacturers). The European Commission recently fined Nintendo nearly $150 million after it was determined that the video game company had colluded with European distributors to fix prices. During the 1990s, prices of Nintendo video game consoles varied widely across Europe. They were much more expensive in Spain than in Britain and other countries; however, distributors in countries with lower retail prices agreed not to sell to retailers in countries with high prices.

26 移轉定價 是母公司與相關子公司之間，有關公司產品、服務和無形資產交易的價格 移轉定價有三個主要替代方案
成本基礎移轉定價(cost-based transfer pricing) 市場基礎移轉定價(market-based transfer pricing) 協議的移轉定價(negotiated transfer pricing) A market-based transfer price is derived from the price required to be competitive in the global marketplace. In other words, it represents an approximation of an arm’s-length transaction. Cost-based transfer pricing uses an internal cost as the starting point in determining price. Cost-based transfer pricing can take the same forms as the cost-based pricing methods discussed earlier in the chapter. The way costs are defined may have an impact on tariffs and duties of sales to affiliates and subsidiaries by global companies. A third alternative is to allow the organization's affiliates to determine negotiated transfer prices among themselves. This method may be employed when market prices are subject to frequent changes.

27 特定國家使用的移轉定價方法

28 稅務法規與移轉價格 因為全球企業從事的是全球性的商業行為，所以會牽涉到不同的稅率問題
許多國家都有不同的稅率誘因來吸引企業，政府對此也相當重視 近幾年來，許多政府試圖利用審查企業的資源分配及收入，將國家的稅收極大化

29 有形與無形資產的銷售 不管價格是如何被訂定出來，負責全球定價決策的主管和管理者，都必須熟悉銷售市場的相關法律與規定
大部分的政府只是為了防止企業逃稅，以及確保全球企業公平分配來自各地的收益 許多大型國際企業常會花費巨額聘請國際會計公司，檢視移轉定價政策

30 相對貿易 相對貿易是把產品從賣方移轉給買方，另外的產品與服務也移轉給賣方 選擇 易貨貿易 混合型態的相對貿易 相對購買 抵償貿易 補償交易
轉換交易 Countertrade usually involves a seller from the West and a buyer in a developing country. Flourishes when hard currency is scarce. Exchange controls may prohibit a company from repatriating earnings so the company spends in country to buy products that are exported. The most important reason for countertrade is that developing countries have found it difficult to obtain bank financing for exports. Counterpurchase is distinguished from other forms in that each delivery in an exchange is paid for in cash. For example, Rockwell International sold a printing press to Zimbabwe for $8 million. The deal went through, however, only after Rockwell agreed to purchase $8 million in ferrochrome and nickel from Zimbabwe, which it subsequently sold on the world market. Offset is a reciprocal arrangement whereby the government in the importing country seeks to recover large sums of hard currency spent on expensive purchases such as military aircraft or telecommunications systems. Lockheed Martin Corp. sold F-16 fighters to the United Arab Emirates for $6.4 billion and agreed to invest $160 million in the petroleum-related UAE Offsets Group. Compensation trading: This form of countertrade, also called buyback, involves two separate and parallel contracts. In one contract, the supplier agrees to build a plant or provide plant equipment, patents or licenses, or technical, managerial, or distribution expertise for a hard currency down payment at the time of delivery. In the other contract, the supplier company agrees to take payment in the form of the plant's output equal to its investment (minus interest) for a period of as many as 20 years. Used heavily in China. Switch trading is a mechanism that can be applied to barter or countertrade. In this arrangement, a third party steps into a simple barter or other countertrade arrangement when one of the parties is not willing to accept all the goods received in a transaction.

31 補償交易 補償交易也稱為購回(buyback)，牽涉到兩個分開而平行的合約 補償交易的成功在於買賣雙方必須達成協議
供應商同意設立工廠或提供工廠原料、專利權、技術、配銷通路給買方 供應商同時承諾向買方購回所生產的產品或勞務，以此作為抵付 補償交易的成功在於買賣雙方必須達成協議

32 轉換交易 轉換交易(switch trading)也稱為三角貿易，適用於易貨貿易或相對貿易
轉換貿易商收取的佣金，從一般商品價值的5%到高科技項目的30%不等 轉換貿易商通常會將貨品原始價格標高，內含港口存放、諮詢或運送等在內的特別費用

33 Dacia的Logan車款 Logan車款可當作壓低成本的研究個案
由於鋼鐵、樹脂及其他元件的價格創下歷史新高，此挑戰對工程師來說艱鉅無比

34 Dacia的Logan車款 以已開發國家為根據地的汽車製造大廠，並非唯一爭相發展低價車款給入門購車者的公司
印度的Tata汽車最近推出一款新車Nano 34