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24. Electric Current 電流 Electric Current 電流 Conduction Mechanism 電導機制

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1 24. Electric Current 電流 Electric Current 電流 Conduction Mechanism 電導機制
Resistance & Ohm’s Law 電阻和歐姆定律 Electric Power 電功率 Electrical Safety 用電安全

2 How does electric current heat this light bulb filament?
電流如何對這燈絲加熱? Where does the energy come from? 能量從何而來? Collisions between e & ions. e 與離子間的碰撞。 e accelerated by E. e 被 E 加速。

3 Electric Current 電流 Current (I) = Net rate of (+) charge crossing an area. 電流 (I) = 通過一面積的淨(+)電荷速率。 [ I ] = Ampere 安培 Electronics : I ~ mA 電子器材 Biomedics : I ~ A 生物醫學器材 Steady current: 穩定電流 Instantaneous current: 瞬間電流 + charges moving right + 電荷往右走 Zero net current 無淨電流 Net current 淨電流 charges moving left 電荷往左走 Both charges moving right 兩種電荷都往右走

4 GOT IT? 24.1 Which of the following represents a nonzero current 下列何項代表一非零電流? What’s its direction? 其方向為何? a beam of electrons moves from left to right 一束電子從左向右走, a beam of protons moves upward 一束質子向上走, in a solution, positive ions move left & negative ions move right, 溶液內,正離子往左,而負離子往右走, blood, carrying + &  ions at the same speed, moves up through a vein, 血液以相同的速率載着正和負離子,在一條血管內向上走, a metal car with no net charge speeds westward. 一部金屬汽車,無淨電荷,往西奔馳。 I, R to L 右到左 I, up 上 I, L 左 no I 無 I no I 無 I

5 Curent: A Microscopic Look 電流:微觀看法
v of charge carriers in media with E = 0 is thermal ( random with  v  = 0 ). 在 E = 0 介質中,電荷載子的 v 來自熱 ( 隨機: v  = 0 ) drift velocity 漂移速度 For E  0, vd =  v   0. Charge in this volume is Q = n A L q. 這體積內的電荷是 n = number of carriers per unit volume 單位體積內電荷載子的數目 q = charge on each carrier 每個載子的電荷

6 Example Copper Wire 銅線 A 5.0-A current flows in a copper wire with cross-sectional area 1.0 mm2, 一個 5.0-A 電流在一條截面積為 1.0 mm2 的銅線內流動, carried by electrons with number density n = 1.11029 m3. 載子是密度 n = 1.11029 m3 的電子。 Find the electron’s drift speed. 求電子的漂移速率。 TIP : Big difference between vd ~ mm/s and signal speed ~ c. 提示: vd ~ mm/s 與訊號的速率 ~ c 有甚大差別。

7 Current Density 電流密度 Current can flow in ill-defined paths ( vd depends on position ), 電流可以順着不甚明確的路徑流動 ( vd 隨位置而異 ) , e.g., in Earth, chemical solutions, ionized gas, … 例: 地球,化學溶液,電離氣體,… Better description of such flows is by 描述這些電流最好用 current density ( J ) = current per unit area 電流密度 ( J ) = 單位面積的電流 [ J ] = A /m2   Charge density 電荷密度

8 Example 24.2. Cell Membrane 細胞膜
Ion channels are narrow pores that allow ions to pass through cell membranes. 離子通道是指容許離子穿越細胞膜的狹窄小孔。 A particular channel has a circular cross section 0.15 nm in radius; 某通道有一圓形截面,其半徑為 0.15 nm ; it opens for 1 ms and passes 1.1104 singly ionized potassium ions. 它張開了 1 ms ,讓 1.1104 個鉀單離子通過。 Find both the current & the current density in the channel. 求通道內的電流和電流密度。 ~0.3 nm Lipid molecules 脂分子 ion channels 離子通道 ~ 4 times max. safe current density in household wirings ~ 住宅線路最大安全電流密度的 4 倍 AWG 10 : 10 號線

9 24.2. Conduction Mechanism 電導機制
E  0 in conductor 導體內  non-electrostatic equilibrium 非靜電平衡  charges accelerated 電荷加速 Collisions 碰撞  steady state 穩態 Ohm’s law, microscopic version 歐姆定律,微觀版   conductivity 導電率 Ohmic material:  independent of E 歐姆材料: 與 E 無關   resistivity 電阻率 []  Vm/A  m []  (m)1

10 No band gap 無帶溝 Small band gap 小帶溝 Large band gap 大帶溝 Material 材料
Resistivity電阻率 (m) Metallic conductors 金屬導體 (20C) Aluminum 鋁 2.65108 Copper 銅 1.68108 Gold 金 2.24108 Iron 鐵 9.71108 Mercury 汞 9.84107 Silver 銀 1.59108 Ionic solutions 離子溶液 ( in water 水中, 18C) 1-molar CuSO4 3.9104 1-molar HCl 1.7102 1-molar NaCl 1.4104 H2 O 2.6105 Blood, human 血,人的 0.70 Seawater (typical) (海水典型) 0.22 Semiconductors 半導體 (pure 純, 20C) Germanium 鍺 0.47 Silicon 硅(舊名矽) 23.0 Insulators 絕緣體 Ceramics 陶瓷 1011  1014 Glass 玻璃 1010  1014 Polystyrene 聚苯乙烯 (保麗龍) 1015  1017 Rubber 橡膠 1013  1016 Wood (dry) 木(乾的) 108  1014 No band gap 無帶溝 Small band gap 小帶溝 Large band gap 大帶溝

11 Example 24.3. Household Wiring 住宅線路
A 1.8-mm-diameter copper wires carries 15 A to a household appliance. 一條直徑為 1.8-mm 的銅線把 15 A 送到一台家居電器。 Find E in the wire. 求線中 E 。

12 GOT IT? 24.2 Two wires carry the same current I. 兩條線上流着一樣的電流 I 。
Wire A has a larger diameter, A 線比B線有較大的直徑, a higher density of current carrying electrons, 較高的電子密度, & a lower resistivity than wire B. 和較低的電阻率。 Rank order 請為兩條線中的下列各量排序 the current densities, (a) 電流密度 the electric fields, (b) 電場 the drift speeds in the two wires. (c) 漂移速率 JA < JB EA < EB vA < vB

13 Conduction in Metals 金屬內的電傳導
Metal 金屬 :  ~ 108  106 m Atomic structure: polycrystalline. 原子結構:多晶 Carriers: sea of “free” electrons, v ~ 106 m/s 載子: ”自由”電子海 E = 0: equal # of e moving  directions   v  = 0. 往 方向走的 e 數目相等 E  0: Collisions between e-ph  vd ~ const. e-ph 間的碰撞 = relaxation time 鬆弛時間 Steady state: 穩態: Ohm’s law 歐姆定律 Due to high T Bose statistics of phonons 由於聲子的高溫波司统計 Cu c.f., vth   T

14 Ionic Solutions 離子溶液 Electrolyte: Carriers = e + ions 電解液: 載子 = e + 離子
 ~ 104  105 m Examples : 例 : Ions through cell membranes. 離子穿透細胞膜 Electric eels. 電鰻。 Batteries & fuel cells. 電瓶和燃料電池。 Electroplating. 電鍍。 Hydrolysis. 水解作用。 Corrosion of metal. 金屬的銹蝕。

15 Plasmas 電漿 Plasma: Ionized gas with e & ions as carriers.
Examples: 例 : Fluorescent lamps. 螢光燈。 Plasma displays. 電漿顯示器。 Neon signs. 霓虹燈。 Ionosphere. 電離層。 Flames. 火焰。 Lightning. 閃電。 Stars. 星球。 Rarefied plasma (collisionless) can sustain large I with minimal E. 稀薄電漿 (無碰撞) 可以極小 E 維持大 I 。 E.g., solar corona. 例 : 日冕。

16 Semiconductor 半導體 Pure semiC 純半導體 :
Thermal motion dislodges an e ... 熱運動逐出一粒 e … Semiconductor 半導體 Pure semiC 純半導體 : T = 0, no mobile charge carriers. 無流動電荷載子 T  0, thermally excited carriers, e & holes. 熱激發載子 e和洞   increases with T  隨 T 增 Doped semiC 摻雜半導體 : Mobile charge carriers from impurities. 雜質提供流動電荷載子。 N-type: carriers = e. Impurities = Donors. E.g. P in Si. 負-型: 載子 = e。 雜質 = 施子。 例:硅中的磷。 P-type: carriers = h. Impurities = Acceptors. E.g. B in Si. 正-型: 載子 = h。 雜質 = 受子。 例:硅中的硼。 … leaving a hole behind. …留下一個洞。 e & h move oppositely in E 在 E 下, e & h 走的方向相反。 Phosphorous with 5 e 有 5 e 的磷 Bound e jumps left, h moved to right 受困的 e 往左跳, h 就往右移 P fits into Si lattice, leaving 1 free e P 嵌入Si 晶格中,留下一自由 e 。

17 PN Junction 正負接面 Current flows in only 1 direction 電流祇往一個方向走
Depletion region 乏區 No battery 無電池 : e & h diffuse across junction & recombine. e & h 朝接面擴散並重組。 Junction depleted of carriers. 接面缺乏載子。 Reverse bias 逆向偏壓 : e & h pulled away from junction. e & h 從接面抽離。 Depletion region widens. 乏區擴大。 I ~ 0. Forward bias 順向偏壓: e & h drawn to junction. e & h 被拉向接面。 Depletion region vanishes. 乏區消失。 I  0.

18 Application: Transistor 應用:三極體(電晶體)
Large current change controlled by small signal (at gate): 以小訊號 (加於閘極) 控制大電流變化: Amplifier, or 擴大器,或 Digital switch. 數位開關 。 Normally channel is closed ( I = 0 ) as one of the junctions is reverse biased. 通常通道是關閉的 (I = 0 ) ,因為其中一個接面是逆向偏壓。 + V applied to gate attracts e to channel: I  0 閘極加上 + V 會吸引 e 到通道: I  0

19 Superconductor 超導體 Onnes 昂内斯 (1911): Hg = 0 below 低於 4.2K.
Muller 繆勒 et al 等 (1986): TC ~ 100K. Current record 目前紀錄 : TC ~ 160K. 過渡温度 電阻率 TC = Applications 應用 : Electromagnets for strong B: 強 B 電磁鐵: Labs, MRI, LHC, trains … 實驗室,磁振造影儀,大強子碰撞機,高鐵 … SQUIDS for measuring weak B. 量微弱 B 的SQUIDS 。 YBaCuO

20 24.3. Resistance & Ohm’s Law 電阻和歐姆定律
macroscopic version 巨觀版 Open circuit 開路: R    I =  V Short circuit 短路: R = 0  I    V Resistor: piece of conductor made to have specific resistance. 電阻器:有特定電阻值的一塊導體。 All heating elements are resistors. 所有加熱元件都是電阻器。 So are incandescent lightbulbs. 白熾燈也是。

21 Table 24. 2. Microscopic & Macroscopic Quantities in Ohm’s Law 表24. 2
Relation E V J I R

22 Example 24.4. Starting Your Car 發動你的車子
A copper wire 0.50 cm in diameter & 70 cm long connects your car’s battery to the starter motor. 一條直徑 0.50 cm ,長 70 cm 的銅線把你車子的電瓶連接到起動馬達。 What’s the wire’s resistance? 線的電阻為何? If the starter motor draws a current of 170A, 如果起動馬達需用 170 A 電流, what’s the potential difference across the wire? 線兩端的電位差為何?

23 GOT IT? 24.3 The figure shows 3 pieces of wire. 圖示三條電線。
& (2) are made from the same material, while (1)和(2)由同樣材料做成,而 (3) is made from material with twice the resistivity. (3) 的材料則有兩倍的電阻率。 & (3) have twice the diameter of (2). (1)和(3)的直徑是(2)的兩倍。 Which has the highest resistance? 那一條有最大的電阻? If the same voltage is applied across each, which will pass the highest current? 如果每條線都加以同樣電壓,那一條可以通過最大的電流? (2) (1)

24 24.4. Electric Power 電功率 for time independent V 若 V 與時間無關
電功率: Power increase with R ( for fixed I ) 電功率隨 R而增 ( I 不變) Power decrease with R ( for fixed V ) 電功率隨 R而減( V 不變) No contradiction 無衝突

25 Conceptual Example 24.1. Electric Power Transmission 電力輸送
Long distance power transmission lines operate at very high voltages – often hundreds of kVs. 長程電力輸送都用很高的電壓 – 往往幾十萬伏。 Why? 為甚麼 ? Power 功率 : P = I V. Transmission loss 傳輸損耗 : PW = I 2 RW = P2 RW / V2 Low I , i.e., high V , lowers PW for same P. 低 I , 即高 V ,可在同 P 下降低 PW 。 PW = (V  VL )2 / RW = (V  P RL / V )2 / RW see Prob 56 參考習題 56 VL < V because of power loss in wire 因線內功率損耗,故 VL < V 。

26 Making the Connection 連起來
What is the current in a typical 120 V, 100 W lightbulb? 一個典型的 120 V,100 W 燈泡要用多少電流? What’s the bulb’s resistance? 燈泡的電阻為何?

27 24.5. Electrical Safety 用電安全
TABLE Effects of Externally Applied Current on Humans 外接電流對人體的影響 Current Range 電流範圍 Effect 効應 0.5  mA Threshold of sensation 開始有感覺 10  15 mA Involuntary muscle contractions; can’t let go 不自主肌肉收縮;不能放手 15  100 mA Severe shock; muscle control lost; 嚴重休克;失去肌肉控制; breathing difficult 呼吸困難 100  200 mA Fibrillation of heart; death within minutes 心肌纖維顫搐;數分鐘內死亡 > 200 mA Cardiac arrest; breathing stops; severe burns 無心跳;無呼吸;嚴重灼傷 Typical human resistance 典型人體電阻 ~ 105 . Fatal current 致命電流 ~ 100 mA = 0.1 A. A wet person can be electrocuted by 120V. 濕的人可以被 120 V 電死。

28 Large current thru operator 大電流通過操作員 No current thru operator 無電流通過操作員
短路到金屬外殼 Large current blows fuse 大電流燒斷保險絲 短路到金屬外殼 保險絲 “火線” “火線” “水線” “地線” “地線” 兩孔插座 三孔插座 Ground fault interupter 接地故障中斷器


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