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Lateral thinking turns up an idea. Vertical thinking develops it.

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1 管 理 學 第六章 決策:管理者工作的本質 Decision-Making: The Essence of the Manager’s Job!
Lateral thinking turns up an idea. Vertical thinking develops it. —Edward de Bone 任維廉

2 園區宅男選標準情人,郭台銘求偶條件, 選工作,選總統,選NB,選自助餐點
The paradox of choice: 高級新果醬樣品試吃, 6 vs. 24種, 何者吸引人較多?實際買較多? 游爸只想買條牛仔褲 Kairos 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

3 綱要 6.1 決策的程序 6.2 決策的普遍性 6.3 管理者即決策者 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

4 6. 1 Decision Making The eight steps in the decision-making process.
Decision: Making a choice from two or more alternatives. The eight steps in the decision-making process. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

5 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

6 Step 1: Identifying the Problem
Problem: A discrepancy between an existing and desired state of affairs. Characteristics of Problems A problem becomes a problem when a manager becomes aware of it. There is pressure to solve the problem. 賀比 The manager must have the authority, information, or resources needed to solve the problem. 不做決策 討論: 如何提出一個對的問題,往往比知道答案還重要 (Albert Einstein):曲突徙薪,運輸規劃 學校:你有沒有答出對的答案?企業需要:能不能 問對問題? 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

7 Step 2: Identifying Decision Criteria
factors that are important to resolving the problem. Costs that will be incurred (investments required) Risks likely to be encountered (chance of failure) Outcomes that are desired (growth of the firm) Step 3: Allocating Weights to the Criteria not of equal importance, in the correct priority order. 討論:Want vs. Must: min requirement 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

8 Exhibit 6–2 Criteria and Weights for Computer Replacement Decision
Criterion Weight Memory and Storage 10 Battery life 8 Carrying Weight 6 Warranty 4 Display Quality 3 討論:1~10, Σ=100, AHP, Delphi…… 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

9 Step 4: Developing Alternatives
Identifying viable alternatives Alternatives are listed (without evaluation) that can resolve the problem. 水平思考 Step 5: Analyzing Alternatives Appraising each alternatives: excel m*n, 討論:Why Alternatives follow Criteria? viable? Want vs. Must: min requirement 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

10 Assessed Values of Laptop Computers: Decision Criteria
2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

11 Step 6: Selecting an Alternative
Choosing the best alternative The alternative with the highest total weight is chosen. Step 7: Implementing the Alternative Putting the chosen alternative into action. Conveying the decision to and gaining commitment from those who will carry out the decision. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

12 Evaluation of Laptop Alternatives: Weighted Criteria
2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

13 Step 8: Evaluating the Decision’s Effectiveness
The soundness of the decision is judged by its outcomes. How effectively was the problem resolved by outcomes resulting from the chosen alternatives? If the problem was not resolved, what went wrong? 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

14 理性決策程序的模式 1. 確定問題 5. 分析替選方案 2. 辨認決策準則 6. 選擇一個替選方案 3. 分配權重給準則 7. 執行替選方案 4. 發展替選方案 8. 評估決策效能 討論:那一步最難?以加盟,換車或換電腦為例。 找出你想要的是什麼。 應用水平思考法發展替選方案。 見識謀斷(行)   Intelligent, Design, Choice activity 14 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

15 Assessment of Alternatives: the Decision Criteria
15 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

16 Assessment of Car Alternatives
16 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

17 討論:找出你真正想要的…… 1.我喜歡?我討厭? 我希望擁有?我害怕失去? 2.什麼人讓我羨慕?什麼事讓我感動?
3. 假如你只剩下三個月的生命 ,你要怎麼過? 17 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

18 練 習 水 平 思 考 1. 捨己救父,兩粒石頭 2. 五百元做汽車防盜, 導聚 3. 只能用四條不能中斷的直線將九個點串連起來 18
2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

19 4. 100元能做什麼? 5. 筆電的另類用法? 6. 玩三個數字遊戲。
中國人社區 麻吉網 =1 F O R T Y T E N + T E N S I X T Y 19 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

20 6.2 決策其實是普遍存在的 (一)個人 1. 理財:生活必需,投資,消費; 旅遊,買車 2. 選課,選系,選校,選配偶,選總統
    旅遊,買車 2. 選課,選系,選校,選配偶,選總統 3. 求職,選車,選電腦 4. 晚餐 討論:張無忌是差勁的決策者? 20 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

21 一生能有幾次選擇? 張無忌是最差勁的決策者
21 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

22 Pervasiveness! (二)公司 1.規劃:成本領導,差異化,焦點集中策略 2.組織:扁平,高狹; 產品,地區,功能
2.組織:扁平,高狹; 產品,地區,功能 3.領導:專斷,參與 4.控制:全部,重點 5.行銷:高價格高品質,低價低質,見縫插針 6.生產:買,租,自製;接近原料,市場 7.財務:股本,負債;CA,P&E,OA 8.人事:內升,外補 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

23 6.3 管理者即決策者 The Manager as Decision Maker
1. 理性的限制:有限理性,直覺 2. 問題的類型:結構良好或不佳 3. 決策的情況 (conditions):確定,風險,不確定 4. 決策的風格 (styles) 討論:1. Assumptions 2. 最佳,滿意,政治模式 3. 大腦的三層結構-生存、情緒、理性 4. groupthink:群體決策,腦力激盪 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

24 Assumption 1: Rationality
Managers make consistent, value-maximizing choices with specified constraints. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

25 Exhibit 6–6 Assumptions of Rationality
2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

26 Bounded Rationality Managers make decisions rationally, but are limited (bounded) by their ability to process information. Assumptions are that decision makers: Will not seek out or have knowledge of all alternatives Will satisfice-choose the 1st alternative encountered that satisfactorily solves the problem. 簡明仁學長 Influence on decision making Org. culture, Power & politics, and ……. Escalation of commitment: an increased commitment to a previous decision despite evidence that it may have been wrong. 昔,反,合 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

27 The Role of Intuition Intuitive decision making
Making decisions on the basis of experience, feelings, and accumulated judgment. 討論:戰火菜鳥,救火兄弟,   IBM深藍,紅面棋王,   趙敏 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

28 Exhibit 6–7 What is Intuition?
2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

29 決策準則 一個人在做決策時,會同時考慮這四個 Goal: (1) max accuracy (2) min effort
(3) max ease of justification   讓〝合理化她的選擇〞變得很容易 (4) min negative emotion caused by inaccurate decision 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

30 請比較! 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

31 再比一次! 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

32 舊書店買音樂辭典 A:詞彙數1萬。沒有破損,全新。 B:詞彙數2萬。封面稍破,其它部分全新。 情況一:這家舊書店同時有這兩種辭典出售
    你願為這兩本辭典各出價多少? 情況二:書店只有辭典A或辭典B。 直覺 vs. 反直覺 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

33 行銷高手的示範 家居用品商 Williams-Sonoma首度引進家用「麵包烘焙機」 (售價275美元 )。
大部分消費者都興趣缺缺:我們真的需要在家裡自製麵包嗎? 好不好用?幹嘛不在家放一台時髦的咖啡機就好了? 一家行銷研究公司建議:引進另一型麵包機,不但體積比先 前的款式笨重,價格也要貴個50%。  2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

34 A’ 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

35 聰明顧客如何脫困? 單獨評價 一般人通常會被那些容易評價(未必是最重要的) 的特徵所影響,從而做出錯誤決策。 比較評價
一般人通常會被誘餌影響。 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

36 奚氏相親六原則 (1) 你美,她醜,帶她一起去; (2) 你醜,她美,應該一個人去; (3) 你和她都美,一個人去;
(4) 你和她都醜,兩人一起去。 (5) 你在難評價特徵上優於她,在易評價特徵上不如她,應 該帶她一起去 (6) 你在難評價特徵上劣於她,在易評價特徵上勝過她,應 該一個人去。 36 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

37 行銷高手的啟示 (1) 如果我比競爭對手強,應該爭取被比較評價; (2) 如果我比競爭對手弱,應該避免被比較評價; (3) 如果我和競爭對手都強,應該避免被比較評價; (4) 如果我和競爭對手都弱,應該爭取被比較評價; (5) 如果在難評價特徵上我強於對手,但在易評價特徵 上不如對手,則應爭取被比較評價; (6) 如果在難評價特徵上我不如對手,而在易評價特徵 上強於對手,則應該避免被比較評價。 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

38 Las Vegas 度蜜月 $5, $175, $6,125, $214,335, $7,503,125! 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

39 跟司機學管理 加州理工大學教授 Camerer 的實驗: 這個決策好嗎? Why?
為了保證每個月能有一筆大致穩定的收入,計程車司機常會給 自己訂一個日收入計畫,例如每天要賺到1,500元才可以回家休息, 無論是晴天雨天。 這個決策好嗎? Why? 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

40 孝子難為 每年過年,包 30,000元紅包給父母,希望他們能買 點補品或買套新衣服。 (2) 將這筆錢分成十次,每次給他們3,000元。
(2) 將這筆錢分成十次,每次給他們3,000元。 你選 (1)? (2)? Why? 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

41 金錢帳戶 vs. 心理帳戶 一般人在內心裡有好幾個帳戶 聰明的消費者不掉入心理帳戶陷阱 (1) 每一塊錢不一樣:視他們怎麼來,往何處去。
(2) 我們通常把辛苦賺來的錢存起來。 (3) 大筆收入不亂花,小筆收入反而容易花光。 聰明的消費者不掉入心理帳戶陷阱 (1) 無須設置心理帳戶,讓帳戶之間互相流通。 (2) 量入為出,不需虧待自己,意外之財不應亂花。 41 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

42 Assumption 2: Structured Problems
Involve goals that clear. Are familiar (have occurred before). Are easily and completely defined—information about the problem is available and complete. Programmed Decision A repetitive decision that can be handled by a routine approach. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

43 Types of Programmed Decisions
Policy A general guideline for making a decision about a structured problem. Procedure A series of interrelated steps that a manager can use to respond (applying a policy) to a structured problem. Rule An explicit statement that limits what a manager or employee can or cannot do. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

44 Policy, Procedure, and Rule Examples
Accept all customer-returned merchandise. Procedure Follow all steps for completing merchandise return documentation. Rules Managers must approve all refunds over $50.00. No credit purchases are refunded for cash. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

45 Unstructured Problems 
Problems that are new or unusual and for which information is ambiguous or incomplete. Problems that will require custom-made solutions. Nonprogrammed Decisions Decisions that are unique and nonrecurring. Decisions that generate unique responses. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

46 Exhibit 6–8 Programmed versus Nonprogrammed Decisions
2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

47 Types of Problems, Decisions, and Level in the Organization, 由技入道!
Ill-structured Top Programmed Decisions Nonprogrammed Decisions Type of Problem Level in Organization Lower 47 Well-structured 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

48 Decision-Making Conditions
Certainty: Assumption 3 A situation in which a manager can make an accurate decision because the outcome of every alternative choice is known. Risk A situation in which the manager is able to estimate the likelihood (probability) of outcomes that result from the choice of particular alternatives. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

49 Expected Value for Revenues from the Addition of One Ski Lift
Expected Expected × Probability = Value of Each Event Revenues Alternative Heavy snowfall $850, = $255,000 Normal snowfall , = ,500 Light snowfall , = , $687,500 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

50 Decision-Making Conditions
Uncertainty Limited information prevents estimation of outcome probabilities for alternatives associated with the problem and may force managers to rely on intuition, hunches, and “gut feelings”. Maximax: the optimistic manager’s choice to maximize the maximum payoff Maximin: the pessimistic manager’s choice to maximize the minimum payoff Minimax: the manager’s choice to minimize maximum regret. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

51 PAYOFF MATRIX (IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS)
14 18 24 28* 11 9 15* 14 51 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

52 REGRET MATRIX (IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS)
17 15 13 7* 52 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

53 Decision-Making Styles: Assumption 4
Dimensions of Decision-Making Styles Ways of thinking Rational, orderly, and consistent Intuitive, creative, and unique Tolerance for ambiguity Low tolerance: require consistency and order High tolerance: multiple thoughts simultaneously 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

54 Types of Decision Makers
Directive Use minimal information and consider few alternatives. Analytic Make careful decisions in unique situations. Conceptual Maintain a broad outlook and consider many alternatives in making decisions. Behavioral Avoid conflict by working well with others and being receptive to suggestions. 知己知彼,組 team! 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

55 Exhibit 6–12 Decision-Making Matrix
55 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授 55

56 Exhibit 6–13 Common Decision-Making Errors and Biases
2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

57 Decision-Making Biases and Errors
Heuristics Using “rules of thumb” to simplify decision making. Overconfidence Bias Holding unrealistically positive views of one’s self and one’s performance. Immediate Gratification Bias Choosing alternatives that offer immediate rewards and that to avoid immediate costs. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

58 Decision-Making Biases and Errors
Anchoring Effect Fixating on initial information and ignoring subsequent information. Selective Perception Bias Selecting organizing and interpreting events based on the decision maker’s biased perceptions. Confirmation Bias Seeking out information that reaffirms past choices and discounting contradictory information. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

59 Decision-Making Biases and Errors
Framing Bias Selecting and highlighting certain aspects of a situation while ignoring other aspects. Availability Bias Losing decision-making objectivity by focusing on the most recent events. Representation Bias Drawing analogies and seeing identical situations when none exist. Randomness Bias Creating unfounded meaning out of random events. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

60 Decision-Making Biases and Errors
Sunk Costs Errors Forgetting that current actions cannot influence past events and relate only to future consequences. Self-Serving Bias Taking quick credit for successes and blaming outside factors for failures. Hindsight Bias Mistakenly believing that an event could have been predicted once the actual outcome is known (after-the-fact). 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

61 Decision Making for Today’s World
Guidelines for making effective decisions: Understand cultural differences. Know when it’s time to call it quits. Use an effective decision-making process. Habits of highly reliable organizations (HROs) *Are not tricked by their success. *Defer to the experts on the front line. *Let unexpected circumstances provide the solution. *Embrace complexity. *Anticipate, but also anticipate their limits. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

62 Characteristics of an Effective Decision-Making Process
It focuses on what is important. It is logical and consistent. It acknowledges both subjective and objective thinking and blends analytical with intuitive thinking. It requires only as much information and analysis as is necessary to resolve a particular dilemma. It is straightforward, reliable, easy to use, and flexible. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

63 補充:TEAM WORK 1. Case study: a manager’s dilemma (p.185) 2. Thinking critically about ethics (p.197) 3. Internet-based exercise (p.206) 4. Team-based exercise (p.210)  分享你最深刻的決策經驗:成敗各一。 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

64 毛治國,決策,天下 張系國,不朽者 Daniel Kahneman
2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

65 奚愷元,別當正常的傻瓜,久石文化,2006 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

66 Ariely, D. , 誰說人是理性的,Predictably Irrational, 天下文化,2008
2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

67 回顧 1. 決策程序之天龍八部 2. 理性 VS. 感性,左腦 VS. 右腦 3. 水平思考,腦力激盪 4. 實務決策者 anytime well ready. 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授

68 Terms to Know decision decision-making process problem
decision criteria rational decision making bounded rationality satisficing escalation of commitment intuitive decision making structured problems programmed decision procedure rule policy unstructured problems nonprogrammed decisions certainty risk uncertainty directive style analytic style conceptual style behavioral style heuristics business performance management (BPM) software 2018/12/10 交通大學管理學院 任維廉教授


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