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微观经济学(第三版) 高鸿业 LECTURE3 效用论.

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Presentation on theme: "微观经济学(第三版) 高鸿业 LECTURE3 效用论."— Presentation transcript:

1 微观经济学(第三版) 高鸿业 LECTURE3 效用论

2 一、概述 效用: 基数效用: 边际效用递减规律: 指商品满足人的欲望的能力,或者说,效用是消费者在消费商品时所感受到的满足程度。
边际效用分析方法;序数效用:无差异曲线分析方法 边际效用递减规律: 在一定的时期内,在其他商品的消费数量保持不变的条件下,随着消费者对某种商品消费量的增加,消费者从该商品连续增加的每一消费单位中所得到的效用增量即边际效用是递减的。 一般假设货币的边际效用不变。

3 边际效用递减规律

4 一、概述 消费者均衡: 单个消费者如何把有限的货币收入分配在各种商品的购买中以获得最大效用。
根据基数效用论,如消费者的货币收入是固定的,市场上各种商品的价格是已知的,则消费者应该使自己购买的各种商品的边际效用与价格之比相等。或者说,应使自己花费在各种商品购买上的最后一元钱所带来的边际效用相等,且等于货币的边际效用。

5 一、概述 商品的需求价格 是消费者在一定时期内对一定量的某种商品所愿意支付的最高价格,该价格取决于商品的边际效用,边际效用越大,消费者为购买这一单位的该种商品所愿意支付的最高价格就越高。 因为边际效用随消费量的增加是递减的,所以需求价格也是递减的,因此需求曲线向右下方倾斜,其上的每一点都是满足消费者效用最大化均衡条件的商品的价格-需求量组合点。 消费者剩余: 消费者在购买一定量的某种商品时愿意支付的最高总价格和实际支付的总价格之间的差额。

6 Consumer Surplus Consumer Surplus 20 for the Market Demand 19 18 17 16
Price ($ per ticket) Consumer Surplus for the Market Demand 20 Demand Curve 19 18 17 16 Consumer Surplus Actual Expenditure 15 14 Market Price 13 1 2 3 4 5 6 Rock Concert Tickets

7 二、无差异曲线 基本假设: 无差异曲线的特征: 效用函数: 偏好的完全性、可传递性,非饱和性(“多总比少好”)。
用来表示消费者偏好相同的两种商品的所有组合。 效用函数: 表示某一商品组合给消费者所带来的效用水平。

8 二、无差异曲线 商品的边际替代率(MRS):
在维持效用水平不变的前提下消费者增加一单位某种商品的消费数量时所需要放弃的另一种商品的消费数量。 边际替代率递减规律:在维持效用水平不变的前提下随着一种商品的消费数量的连续增加,消费者为得到每一单位的这种商品所需要放弃的另一种商品的消费数量是递减的。该规律决定了无差异曲线的斜率绝对值是递减的,即无差异曲线凸向原点。

9 二、无差异曲线 无差异曲线的特点: 向下倾斜; 其右上和左下分别表示偏好于和不偏好于; 效用函数是连续的; 每条无差异曲线绝不相交;
边际替代率(无差异曲线的斜率)递减(无差异曲线是凸的)。

10 Consumer Preferences Perfect Substitutes 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 Apple Juice
(glasses) 4 Perfect Substitutes 3 2 1 Orange Juice (glasses) 1 2 3 4 38

11 Consumer Preferences Perfect Complements 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 Left Shoes
1 2 3 4 Right Shoes 40

12 三、预算线 预算线 表示在消费者的收入和商品的价格给定的条件下,消费者的全部收入所能购买到的两种商品的各种组合。
预算线的斜率反映了两种商品的相对价格,是两种商品价格比取负;截距表示使用已有收入能够购买的最多单种商品。

13 三、预算线 预算线的变动: 收入变化: 价格变化: 两种商品价格发生同比变化,预算线斜率不变,向外或向内平移。
收入增加/减少使预算线向外/内平移。 价格变化: 一种商品价格变化,预算线以另一种商品的截距点为原点旋转。 两种商品价格发生同比变化,预算线斜率不变,向外或向内平移。 收入和两种商品价格同比例同方向变化,此时预算线不变。

14 Budget Constraints 80 60 40 20 Clothing (units per week) A increase in
income shifts the budget line outward (I = $160) L2 80 60 L3 (I = $40) A decrease in income shifts the budget line inward 40 (I = $80) L1 20 Food (units per week) 40 80 120 160 42 61

15 Budget Constraints L3 L2 L1 (PF = 2) (PF = 1/2) 40 (PF = 1) Clothing
(units per week) An increase in the price of food to $2.00 changes the slope of the budget line and rotates it inward. L3 (PF = 2) (PF = 1/2) L2 A decrease in the price of food to $.50 changes the slope of the budget line and rotates it outward. 40 (PF = 1) L1 Food (units per week) 40 80 120 160 42 65

16 四、消费者的均衡 最大化消费者效用的市场篮子必须具备两个条件: 应在预算线上, 应是给消费者带来最大效用(最受消费者偏好)的商品组合。
根据无差异曲线的斜率MRS=-C/F,预算线斜率为-Pf/Pc,最大化条件是MRS=Pf/Pc,或可写成 因此,当边际替代率等于两种商品价格比时,消费者获得最大满足。

17 Consumer Choice j U1 A R S P Q i O

18 A Corner Solution A U2 U3 U1 A corner solution exists at point B. B
Frozen Yogurt (cups monthly) A U2 U3 U1 A corner solution exists at point B. B Ice Cream (cup/month) 84

19 五、价格变化和收入变化对消费者均衡的影响
价格变化:价格-消费曲线 在消费者的偏好、收入以及其他商品价格不变的条件下,与某一种商品的不同价格水平相联系的消费者效用最大化的均衡点的轨迹。 收入变化:收入-消费曲线 在消费者的偏好以及商品价格不变的条件下,与消费者的不同收入水平相联系的消费者效用最大化的均衡点的轨迹。 收入增/减将使预算线右/左移,并使消费点沿收入-消费曲线右/左移;同时使需求曲线右/左移。

20 Effect of a Price Change
Clothing (units per month) Assume: I = $20 PC = $2 PF = $2, $1, $.50 10 4 5 6 U2 U3 A B D U1 12 20 Three separate indifference curves are tangent to each budget line. Food (units per month) 4

21 Effect of a Price Change
Clothing (units per month) The price-consumption curve traces out the utility maximizing market basket for the various prices for food. 6 A Price-Consumption Curve U1 5 D B 4 U3 U2 Food (units per month) 4 12 20 4

22 Effect of a Price Change
of Food Demand Curve Individual Demand relates the quantity of a good that a consumer will buy to the price of that good. H E G $2.00 4 12 20 $1.00 $.50 Food (units per month) 4

23 Effects of Income Changes
Clothing (units per month) D 7 16 U3 Assume: Pf = $1 Pc = $2 I = $10, $20, $30 5 10 B U2 Income-Consumption Curve An increase in income, with the prices fixed, causes consumers to alter their choice of market basket. 3 4 A U1 Food (units per month)

24 五、价格变化和收入变化对消费者均衡的影响
正常商品VS劣质商品 当收入-消费曲线有正的斜率时,需求随收入增加而增加,需求的收入弹性为正,此种商品为正常商品; 当收入-消费曲线有负的斜率时,需求随收入增加而减少,需求的收入弹性为负,此种商品为劣质商品。 恩格尔曲线: 将商品的消费量与收入联系起来,表示消费者在每一收入水平下对某商品的需求量。 正常商品的恩格尔曲线向上倾斜,劣质商品的恩格尔曲线则向下倾斜。

25 An Inferior Good 15 30 Steak (units per month) 10 5 20 Hamburger
C Steak (units per month) Income-Consumption Curve …but hamburger becomes an inferior good when the income consumption curve bends backward between B and C. 10 5 20 A U1 B U2 Both hamburger and steak behave as a normal good, between A and B... Hamburger (units per month)

26 Engel Curves 30 20 10 4 8 12 16 Income ($ per month) Food (units
Engel curves slope upward for normal goods. 30 20 10 Food (units per month) 4 8 12 16

27 Engel Curves 30 Inferior Normal 20 10 4 8 12 16 Income ($ per month)
Engel curves slope backward bending for inferior goods. Inferior Normal 20 10 Food (units per month) 4 8 12 16

28 六、替代效应和收入效应 替代效应: 收入效应: 收入效应表示消费者的效用水平发生变化。替代效应则不改变消费者的效用水平。
在效用保持恒定的条件下因一种商品价格变化而改变对该种商品的消费数量,商品价格变动-商品的相对价格变动-商品需求量变动。 一般是价格下跌,消费数量增加。 收入效应: 在价格水平保持恒定的条件下因购买力变化而改变对该种商品的消费数量,商品的价格变动-实际收入水平变动-商品需求量变动。 收入增加,对某种商品的消费可能上升或下降。 收入效应表示消费者的效用水平发生变化。替代效应则不改变消费者的效用水平。

29 六、替代效应和收入效应 正常商品: 劣质商品: 吉芬商品: 替代效应和价格成反方向变动,收入效应也与价格成反方向变动。
总效应与价格成反方向变动,因此需求曲线向下倾斜。 劣质商品: 替代效应和价格成反方向变动,收入效应与价格成同方向变动。 但在大多数情况下,收入效应小于替代效应,因此总效应与价格成反方向变动,需求曲线向下倾斜。 吉芬商品: 是一种特殊的劣质商品;其收入效应大于替代效应,总效应与价格成同方向变动,导致对某种商品的需求曲线向上倾斜。

30 正常商品的替代效应和收入效应 U2 U1 Clothing (units per month) C2 F2 T B R F1 S C1 A
When the price of food falls, consumption increases by F1F2 as the consumer moves from A to B. R F1 S C1 A U1 E Total Effect Substitution Effect D The substitution effect,F1E, (from point A to D), changes the relative prices but keeps real income (satisfaction) constant. The income effect, EF2, ( from D to B) keeps relative prices constant but increases purchasing power. Income Effect Food (units per month) O

31 the substitution effect
劣质商品的替代效应和收入效应 Clothing (units per month) Total Effect Since food is an inferior good, the income effect is negative. However, the substitution effect is larger than the income effect. B Income Effect U2 R A D Substitution Effect U1 Food (units per month) O F1 E S F2 T

32 七、从单个消费者的需求曲线到市场需求曲线
一种商品的市场需求不仅依赖于每一个消费者的需求函数,而且依赖于市场中所有消费者的数目;因此,一种商品的市场需求量是每一个价格水平上的该商品的所有个人需求量的加总。 市场需求曲线一般也是向下倾斜的,其上的每一点代表在相应的价格水平下可以给全体消费者带来的最大效用水平或满足程度的市场需求量。

33 Summing to Obtain a Market Demand Curve
Price 5 DA The market demand curve is obtained by summing the consumer’s demand curves DC DB Market Demand 4 3 2 1 Quantity 5 10 15 20 25 30

34 八、不确定性和风险 不确定性: 指经济行为者在事先不能准确地知道自己的某种决策的结果,或者说只要经济行为者的决策可能结果不止一种,就会产生不确定性。 风险: 在消费者知道自己某种行为决策的各种可能结果时,如果消费者还知道各种可能结果发生的概率,则该种不确定性被称为风险。

35 八、不确定性和风险 向量化表示的彩票:L=[P,W1,W2] 彩票的期望效用函数(VNM效用函数): 彩票的期望值: 彩票期望值的效用:
消费者的风险态度: 风险回避者: 风险偏好者: 风险中立者:

36 一个例子 A Scenario Risk Averse
A person can have a $20,000 job with 100% probability and receive a utility level of 16. The person could have a job with a .5 chance of earning $30,000 and a .5 chance of earning $10,000. 40

37 一个例子 Expected Income = (0.5)($30,000) + (0.5)($10,000) = $20,000
Risk Averse Expected Income = (0.5)($30,000) (0.5)($10,000) = $20,000 40

38 一个例子 Risk Averse Expected income from both jobs is the same -- risk averse may choose current job 40

39 一个例子 The expected utility from the new job is found: Risk Averse
E(u) = (1/2)u ($10,000) + (1/2)u ($30,000) E(u) = (0.5)(10) + (0.5)(18) = 14 E(u) of Job 1 is 16 which is greater than the E(u) of Job 2 which is 14. 43

40 一个例子 Risk Averse This individual would keep their present job since it provides them with more utility than the risky job. They are said to be risk averse. 44

41 gamble with a .5 probability
一个例子 Utility The consumer is risk averse because she would prefer a certain income of $20,000 to a gamble with a .5 probability of $10,000 and a .5 probability of $30,000. E 10 15 20 13 14 16 18 30 A B C D Income ($1,000) 46

42 neutral and is indifferent between certain events
Risk Neutral 6 A E C 12 18 The consumer is risk neutral and is indifferent between certain events and uncertain events with the same expected income. Utility Income ($1,000) 10 20 30 49

43 would prefer the gamble
Risk Loving Utility 3 10 20 30 A E C 8 18 The consumer is risk loving because she would prefer the gamble to a certain income. Income ($1,000) 52

44 八、不确定性和风险 保险: 消费者愿意支付的保险金额S等于其财产的期望损失(完全保险):S=pL+(1-p)0
保险后的可靠财产W-S等于其在风险条件下的财产期望值:W-S=p(W-L)+(1-p)W 单起事件是随机发生和不可预测的,但众多相似事件的平均结果则可根据大数法则进行预测。 对保险公司而言,只要其期望收益大于0,就可接受业务:

45 风险溢价举例 A Scenario Question
The person has a .5 probability of earning $30,000 and a .5 probability of earning $10,000 (expected income = $20,000). The expected utility of these two outcomes can be found: E(u) = .5(18) + .5(10) = 14 Question How much would the person pay to avoid risk? 54

46 gives the person the same expected utility as the
风险溢价举例 10 16 Here , the risk premium is $4,000 because a certain income of $16,000 gives the person the same expected utility as the uncertain income that has an expected value of $20,000. 18 30 40 20 14 A C E G F Risk Premium Utility Income ($1,000) 57

47 风险溢价举例(续) Variability in potential payoffs increase the risk premium.
Example: A job has a .5 probability of paying $40,000 (utility of 20) and a .5 chance of paying 0 (utility of 0). 58

48 风险溢价举例(续) Example: The expected income is still $20,000, but the expected utility falls to 10. Expected utility = .5u($) + .5u($40,000) = (20) = 10 58

49 风险溢价举例(续) Example: The certain income of $20,000 has a utility of 16.
If the person is required to take the new position, their utility will fall by 6. 59

50 风险溢价举例(续) Example: The risk premium is $10,000 (i.e. they would be willing to give up $10,000 of the $20,000 and have the same E(u) as the risky job. 59

51 风险的偏好 将预期收益和收益的标准差作为两轴可画出无差异曲线。 风险的规避程度可通过图形直观观察:图 PP53-54.

52 Risk Aversion and Indifference Curves
Expected Income Slightly Risk Averse: A large increase in standard deviation requires only a small increase in income to maintain satisfaction. U1 U2 U3 Standard Deviation of Income


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