鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院 生態科學與技術學系

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1 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院 生態科學與技術學系
Chap. 2 倫理學的理論 Ethical theory 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院 生態科學與技術學系 Ayo NUTN website:

2 課程大綱 Part I 基本概念 Part II 環境倫理學與應用倫理學 Part III 環境倫理學的理 1 科學與倫理學
2 倫理學的理論 3 宗教的環境倫理觀 (儒家、道家、佛教、基督信仰) Part II 環境倫理學與應用倫理學 4 倫理學與經濟學： 5 可持續發展：對未來世代的責任 6對自然界的責任：植物和動物權利 Part III 環境倫理學的理 Ayo NUTN website

3 Chap. 2 Ethical Theory (倫理學的理論)
2.1 引言 2.2 為何需要倫理學理論? 2.3 倫理的相對論(relativism) 2.4 自然法則的傳統：目的論(teleology) and美德(virtues) 2.5 實利主義 (utilitarianism) 2.6 道義論 (deontology) : 責任與權利的倫理 2.7 宗教的環境倫理 2.8 總結 Ayo NUTN website

4 2.1 引言 Why preserve endangered species?
Utilitarianism (實利主義), in terms of the consequences of our actions and advises us to act in ways that maximize overall social benefits (整個社會的利益). Deontological ethics (道義論倫理), in terms of rights and principles and tells us that we have certain fundamental duties(基本責任) that require us to act in certain ways and to refrain(節制) from acting in others. Natural law ethics (自然法則倫理), there are natural rights (自然權利) and a law of nature (自然法則) that direct ethical behavior. These natural laws are derived from God’s laws. Ayo NUTN website

5 Rights, fairness, justice, utility
倫理學的四個基本成分 Rights (權益) Fairness (公平性) Justice (正當性) Utility (效用) People who oppose(反對) environmental regulation often appeal to property rights (資產權利), fairness(公平), and social benefits(社會利益). Environmentalists(環境主義者) likewise appeal to the rights of nature(自然的權利), the values of wilderness(野地的價值), and the harms of pollution (污染的傷害). Ayo NUTN website

6 Beliefs, attitudes, or standards
Ethics, derived from the Greek word thos, meaning “custom”(習俗). In this sense, ethics consists of the general beliefs(信念), attitudes(態度), or standards (準則) that guide customary behavior (習俗行為). Thus any society have its own ethics in the sense that it has typical beliefs(信念), attitudes(態度), and standards (標準) that determine what is customary. Whether consciously or not, the behavior of every individual is also guided by certain beliefs, attitudes, or standards. Ayo NUTN website

7 Philosophical ethics From the earliest days of Greek philosophy, philosophical ethics (哲學的倫理學) has not been satisfied simply to accept as right that which is customary. Ethics as a branch of philosophy seeks a reasoned examination of what custom (習俗) tells us about how we ought to live. Lifelong critical examination of the customary norms of society(社會習俗). Ayo NUTN website

8 Philosophical ethics 每個人面對其平常和習俗的生活經驗，都有其個人的信念、態度和價值。
哲學(philosophy)要我們反省自問， Why do we believe the things we believe? Should we change our attitudes? Are our values justified? What ought to, or should be done? Ayo NUTN website

9 Ethical issues (倫理的議題)
One of the first challenges in any study of ethics involves identifying an issue as an ethical issue. We all need to practice this stepping back in order to recognize ethical issues in our everyday experience. Aldo Leopold, The Land Ethic (土地倫理), 提到 the story of Odysseus’s return from the Trojan(特洛伊的) War. Odysseus hanged a dozen women slaves whom he suspected of misbehavior. Because Greeks saw slaves as property, they apparently saw nothing ethically wrong with this action. Leopold uses this example to call for an “extension of ethics” to include human relations to the land. Just as Odysseus was ethically insensitive to the evil of killing slaves, we fail to notice the wanton destruction (恣意破壞) of the land. Ayo NUTN website

10 From Normative to philosophical
to make ethical judgments, give advice, and offer evaluations of what ought to or should be is to engage in normative ethics(規範的倫理). However, we should not remain at the level of normative ethics. Resolving controversy requires us once again to step outside of, or abstract from, specific disagreements in order to examine the values in conflict and the competing factors that underlie the conflict. From normative to philosophical ethics. Ayo NUTN website

11 philosophical ethics The essence of philosophical ethics involves evaluating reasons that support normative judgments or seeking to clarify the concepts involved in such judgments. Environmental ethics is a branch of philosophy engaged in the systematic study and evaluation of the normative judgments that are so much a part of environmentalism. The philosophical questions raised by descriptive and normative approaches to ethics. Ayo NUTN website

12 Ethical theory 個人：what should I do? What kind of person should I be? What should I value? How should I live? 社會：What type of society is best? What policies should we follow as a group? What social arrangements and practices will best protect and promote individual well-being? What should be done when individuals disagree? Ethical theory includes philosophical analyses (哲學分析) of moral(道德), political(政治), economic(經濟), legal(法律), and social(社會) questions. Ayo NUTN website

13 2.2 為何需要倫理學理論？ provide a common language for discussing and understanding ethical issues. become more aware of the patterns in our ways of thinking and the assumptions reflected therein. is to offer guidance and evaluation Some argue that these theories are part of the problem and have misled us. Thus an important part of environmental ethics is examining philosophical theories about ethics. Ayo NUTN website

14 2.3 倫理的相對論(relativism) Ethical relativism: Someone believe that ethical controversies cannot have objective and rational answers. Because ethical values and judgments are, ultimately, a matter of opinion or personal feelings. Who is to say what is right or wrong? Relativism may be the most serious challenge (最嚴重的挑戰) to teachers of ethics. Ayo NUTN website

15 對 或 錯 的判斷 Anyone can offer good reasons to support a judgment of right or wrong. Both normative ethics and philosophical ethics provide resources for disputing the relativist claim. People in different cultures and from differing backgrounds hold different beliefs about many things. But it would be a mistake to conclude that there is no right answer simply because two cultures hold different beliefs. For example, some people may believe that the planet Earth is flat and lies at the center of the universe. Friendship, love, freedom, and democracy vs. hatred, murder, slavery, and totalitarianism (極權主義) Ayo NUTN website

16 2.4 自然法則的傳統：目的論 & 美德 西方的傳統倫理，可追溯到Aristotle (4th century B.C.) and Thomas Aquinas (13th century A. D.). Aristotle did not distinguish between ethics and science (倫理與科學) as clearly as we distinguish between them today. Aristotle thought that the study of biology (生物學) and psychology (心理學) was an essential part of ethics (倫理學) because it required, at a minimum, knowledge of basic human needs, common capabilities and potentials and motivation. Further, Aristotle placed the biological sciences (生物科學) at the forefront of knowledge, whereas in the 21th century, physics and math(物理與數學) seem to hold sway(保有統治地位). Ayo NUTN website

17 Why? question 物體的存在，有四個原因(成分)
Material (物質), Formal (形態), Efficient (能力), Final (終結)(功能)(purpose or function) The goal of this activity(這些活動的目標) was identified in the object’s telos (目的). Hence Aristotle’s science and his ethics are often called teleological(目的論的). Ayo NUTN website

18 Three fundamental activities of life
Two basic types of natural objects: 有生命與無生命 有生命的物體，有三種基本的活力，psyche(精神), or soul(靈魂)：nutritive(營養的), sensitive(感覺的), thinking(思想的) 植物，只有nutritive soul 動物有nutritive 和sensitive soul 只有人，三種 souls，都有。 每一種soul都各有其存在的活力或功能(目的)。 Ayo NUTN website

19 Thomas Aquinas (13th century)
Aquinas attempted to synthesize Christian theology with Aristotle’s science and ethics. The characteristic activity of all natural objects results from God’s plan. Science helps us understand God’s purpose. Nature itself has a purpose, and the harmonious functioning of nature reveals the goodness of God’s plan. In this ethical tradition, fulfilling our natural potential– a potential implicitly in harmony with the rest of nature– is the highest form of ethical activity for an individual. Ayo NUTN website

20 Virtue (美德) Virtue ethics (美德倫理) asks, “What kind of person should I be?” Ethically good person, Plato(柏拉圖)： courage(勇氣), moderation(穩健), justice(正義), and wisdom(智慧) Aristotle(亞里斯多得) adds：generosity(慷慨) , pride(自尊), good temper(好性情), truthfulness (誠實), friendliness (友情), and modesty(樸素) Christians(基督教)：faithfulness, hopefulness, and charity (信、望、愛) Ayo NUTN website

21 Ethics and self-interest
Self-interest(自我利益) is the major barrier to ethical responsibility(倫理責任). Ethics and self-interest generally conflict. A generous person does not struggle with selfishness and decide to act generously only because some rules require it. Ethics and self-interest coincide(一致性) rather than conflicting. Because both qualities actually describe who I am– describe my”self”. I act ethically because that is what I want to do, and I want to do it because that is just the kind of person I am. Ayo NUTN website

22 目地論的當代觀點 自然是美好的？自然有其目的(功能)。 當代的觀點挑戰： 每個事物，都有其存在的「目的」(功能)？ 自然事物，都是「好的」？
天擇(Natural selection)，有其目的？ Good-for-a-species, or good-for-an-individual, is not always identical to an ethical good. Ayo NUTN website

23 2.5 實利主義 (utilitarianism)
play a significant role in environmental policy. 實利主義(功利主義), maximize the overall good or to produce the greatest good for the greatest number. 有兩個成分：an account of good, and a rule for judging all acts and decisions in terms of that good. If the act tends to maximize good consequences, it is an ethically right act, and if it does not, the act is ethically wrong. Ayo NUTN website

24 實利主義區分兩種基本價值：the good(本身)，與good相關聯的其它事物。
各個 acts or decisions are judged in terms of their utility, or their usefulness in producing good consequences (產出好的結果). Two type of Unitarianism, Hedonistic(快樂主義的) utilitarianism Preference utilitarianism (the satisfaction of our desires) (free-market economic theory) Ayo NUTN website

25 當代觀點的挑戰 Pleasure, happiness, desire 的量化？ The good的量化？
Cost-benefit analysis, 無法包含到所有受影響的項目。 受影響的所有對象 The ethically correct decision is to act on principle, regardless of consequences. Ayo NUTN website

26 2.6 道義論 (deontology) : 責任與權利的倫理
道義論，acting on principle(原則) rather than in terms of consequences. The central concepts of ethics involve duties(責任) and rights(權利). Kantian ethics (康德倫理學), we can be held responsible only for those things that we can control. The focus of ethics should be on those principles (maxims, 箴言) on which we freely and autonomously choose to act. 合理的 (rational) 選擇和行為 Ayo NUTN website

27 Kantian ethics (康德倫理學)
We treat people as ends(目的) and never simply as means(手段、工具) or as subjects(主體), and never simply as objects(客體). 每個人都有權去追求個人的目標，只要不把別人當作達到目標的工具。 尊重別人的平等權和自由權， 我們的本質是自由和理性的生物 (our nature as free and rational beings) Ayo NUTN website

28 當代觀點的挑戰 The Kantian ethical tradition offers no practical basis for making substantive value judgments. No account of what is good, valuable, or worthy. A strong human-centered bias implicit in this tradition. The ethical traditions of natural law, utilitarianism, and Kantian deontology have had a significant influence on the development of modern political thinking. Ayo NUTN website

29 2.7 社會公平性與私有財產權 西方對財產權的理解，可追溯到17世紀(英國哲學家 John Locke)。(自然狀態)
個人全權擁有它自己的身體和勞動力所得的財產。 主地的自然狀態是無主的。 當某人擁有的勞動力與無主地結合時，他或她的勞動力就轉移到土地上。這個人就開始擁有這塊土地。 當每個人都分到足夠且好的土地時，私有權分配才算是正義 (justified) 土地擁有者，只有當不會侵害別人的自由時，才算是合法。 民主革命，私有財產權打敗法統王權。 Ayo NUTN website

30 Questions and Discussion

31 問題2.1： 試想：倘若我背叛我的朋友，我可獲得很大的好處。倘若沒有人(包含那個朋友)永遠不會知道我的背叛。 這種情況，
按實利主義將會是背叛這個朋友。 倘若是按道義主義，則是不可背叛。 Ayo NUTN website

32 問題2.2： 試想：開車經過工業園區(停工)，十字路口，遇到紅燈。前後左右都沒有車。沒有路人，也沒有警察。 情、理、法，這三樣，如何排序？
你是否會闖紅燈？ 倘若你需要趕去火車站接朋友，時間有點來不及。你是否會闖紅燈？ 情、理、法，這三樣，如何排序？ 法、理、情？理、情、法？理、法、情？ 法、情、理？情、法、理？情、理、法？ Ayo NUTN website

33 問題2.3： Intrinsic vs. instrumental
參閱：Maguire, L. A. and J. Justus (2008) Why intrinsic value is a poor basis for conservation decisions. BioScience 58(10): 讀後心得報告： Ayo NUTN website