第二篇 管理議題 全球環境下的管理 3 各節重點 3.1 比較種族優越中心、多中心、地球為中心 三者對全球性企業態度的不同 第二篇　管理議題 3 全球環境下的管理 各節重點 3.1 比較種族優越中心、多中心、地球為中心 三者對全球性企業態度的不同 3.2 描述區域性貿易聯盟與全球貿易機制 3.3 描述成為國際化企業所需的架構與技術 3.4 解釋全球性企業相關的政治、經濟、文化 環境因素

What’s Your Global Perspective? 3.1 你的全球觀是什麼？ What’s Your Global Perspective? 德國人、義大利人和印尼人能同時使用3~4 種語言，這對其 　他國家的人並不常見，中國有超過一半的小學生都在學英文 　，如果與印度可以講英文的人口相加，大約會有5 億人 ── 　這已經超過了以英文為母語的人口。 單一語言 (monolingualism) 是一個國家眼光狹隘的表徵。 Parochialism - viewing the world solely through your own perspectives, leading to an inability to recognize differences between people.

管理者可能會有的全球觀，如下列三種。 There are three possible global attitudes. ●種族優越中心 (ethnocentric attitude) 認為母國的工作方式及實務操作是最好的，管理者對外國員工有不信任感。 Ethnocentric Attitude - the parochialistic belief that approaches and practices are those of the home country. ●多中心觀點 (polycentric attitude)認為本土化的員工較能發展出適當的工作方式和實務操作。 Polycentric Attitude - the view that the managers in the host country know the best work approaches and practices for running their business.

●地球為中心觀點 (geocentric attitude)認為選擇全世界最優秀的工作方式和人才來管理企業，才是最有效的方式。 Polycentric Attitude - the view that the managers in the host country know the best work approaches and practices for running their business.

3.2 瞭解全球環境 Understanding the Global Environment 全球貿易現今被兩種力量形塑：區域貿易聯盟 (regional 　trading alliances) 和全球貿易機制 (global trade mechanisms)。 Global trade today is shaped by two forces: regional 　trading alliances and global trade mechanisms. 在過去，貿易是國與國的對抗，現在則是各種區域貿易協定 　，包括歐盟 (EU)、北美自由貿易協定 (NAFTA)、東南亞國 　協 (ASEAN) 等。 Global competition once was considered country against country. Now, the competition is shaped by regional agreements including the EU, NAFTA, ASEAN and others. 56

Regional Trading Alliances 區域貿易聯盟 Regional Trading Alliances 歐盟(EU)是由27個歐洲國家合組的政治、經濟實體，其目的係為了排除經濟障礙。 European Union (EU) - In order to remove economic barriers, a union of 27 European nations created as a unified economic and trade entity. EU更進一步的是統一的歐洲貨幣 — 歐元(euro)，歐盟27 個成員中有16 個國家採用歐元。 Another step toward full unification occurred when the single common European currency, the euro, was adopted. 56

Exhibit 3-1: European Union Map

1992 年墨西哥、加拿大和美國簽訂了北美自由貿易協定 ， 直到2010 年仍是世界最大的經濟體。 北美自由貿易協定 (NAFTA) 1992 年墨西哥、加拿大和美國簽訂了北美自由貿易協定 ， 　直到2010 年仍是世界最大的經濟體。 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Signed in 1992, an agreement among the Mexican, Canadian, and U.S. governments in which certain barriers to trade have been eliminated. NAFTA is the most powerful force in today’s global economy. 東南亞國協 (ASEAN) 東南亞國協由10 個東南亞國家組成，超過5 億9100 萬人口，合併GDP 約為1 兆5,000 億美金。 Nations (ASEAN) A trading alliance of 10 Southeast Asian nations. The ASEAN has a population over 591 million with a combined GDP of US$1.5 trillion. 57

Exhibit 3-1: ASEAN Map

其他的貿易聯盟 Other Trade Alliance 美國-中美洲自由貿易協定(U.S.-CAFTA)係類似NAFTA的自由貿易區，目的在消除對美國的貿易障礙，然而卻只有薩爾瓦多與哥斯大黎加真正加入此貿易區。 非洲聯盟 (African Union, AU)，成立於2002 年，包含了53 　個非洲會員國，屬於集政治、經濟和軍事於一體的全非洲性 　政治實體。 東非共同體 (East African Community, EAC)，是由肯亞、烏干達、坦尚尼亞、蒲隆地和盧安達5 個東非國家組成的區域　性國際組織。 南亞區域合作聯盟 (South Asian Association for Regional 　Cooperation, SAARC)，由孟加拉國、不丹、印度、馬爾地 　夫、尼泊爾、巴基斯坦和斯里蘭卡、阿富汗8國組成，提倡 　2006 年開始實行南亞自由貿易區所有商品全部貿易零關稅。

Global Trade Mechanisms 全球貿易機制 Global Trade Mechanisms 只要有貿易議題發生，全球貿易系統就會確保貿易本身是有 　效率而且具效能的活動。 As trade issues arise, global trade systems ensure that trade continues efficiently and effectively. 全球化的一個重要命題是不同國家間必須相互依存 ── 也 　就是不論好壞，單一國家的舉措都會影響到另一個國家。 Globalization is the interdependence of countries ── that is, what happens in one can impact others, good or bad. 58

世界貿易組織 (WTO) 世界貿易組織 (WTO) 是負責監督經濟體成員之間各種貿易協議得到執行的一個國際組織，前身是1948 年開始實施的關稅及貿易總協定的秘書處，目前計有153個成員國。 World Trade Organization (WTO) - a global organization of 153 countries that deals with the rules of trade among nations.

國際貨幣基金組織(IMF)目前有185個成員國，它透過監督、貸款、技術援助和培訓三項職能以促進國際金融體系之穩定。 International Monetary Fund (IMF) - an organization of 185 countries that promotes international monetary cooperation and provides advice, loans, and technical assistance. 世界銀行集團 (WBG) 世界銀行集團 (WBG) - 由五個相近的機構組成，開始的使命是幫助在第二次世界大戰中被破壞的國家重建，目前主要提供開發中國家低息貸款、無息信貸和贈款。 World Bank Group - a group of five closely associated institutions that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries. 59

經濟合作與發展組織 (OECD) 經濟合作與發展組織 (OECD) 的前身是由美國和加拿大發起成立的歐洲經濟合作組織 (OEEC)，計有30個會員國，成立的目的是幫助執行致力於第二次世界大戰以後歐洲重建的馬歇爾計畫，後來其成員國逐漸擴展到非歐洲國家。1961年，歐洲經濟合作組織改名為經濟合作與發展組織。 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) - an international economic organization that helps its 30 member countries achieve sustainable economic growth and employment.

3.3 全球性企業 德國汽車戴姆勒公司、日本日產汽車、法國雷諾汽車共同合作分享小型車技術，以及其驅動系統技術，此一安排使三家　車廠可以保有競爭力。 Daimler, Nissan Motor, and Renault are part of a strategic partnership that is sharing small car technology and power trains — an arrangement that all three automakers will allow them to better compete in an environment where cutting costs is crucial. 多國公司(MNC) 泛指多國經營的國際公司。 Multinational Corporation (MNC) - a broad term that refers to any and all types of international companies that maintain operations in multiple countries. 60

不同型態的跨國組織 Types of International Organizations 多國籍公司係MNC的 一種型態，傾向讓地方分支公司擁有決策權， 它適度地反映了多元中心觀點。 Multidomestic Corporation - an MNC that decentralizes management and other decisions to the local country. 全球企業其管理及相關決策由集團總部發動，決策重點在於全球運作效率和減少支出，反映種族優越中心。 Global Company - an MNC that centralizes management and other decisions in the home country. GC treat the world market as an integrated whole and focus on the need for global efficiency and cost savings. 跨國或無邊界組織採地理為中心的觀點，以破除地理區隔之藩離。 Transnational or Borderless Organization - an MNC in which artificial geographical barriers are eliminated.

How Do Organizations Go Global? 如何成為國際性組織？ How Do Organizations Go Global? 全球性採購 Global Sourcing - purchasing materials or labor from around the world wherever it is cheapest. 出口 Exporting - making products domestically and selling them abroad. 進口 Importing - acquiring products made abroad and selling them domestically.

授權 Licensing - an organization gives another organization the right to make or sell its products using its technology or product specifications. 加盟 Franchising - an organization gives another organization the right to use its name and operating methods.

策略聯盟 Strategic Alliance - a partnership between an organization and one or more foreign company partner(s) in which both share resources and knowledge in developing new products or building production facilities. 合資 Joint Venture - a specific type of strategic alliance in which the partners agree to form a separate, independent organization for some business purpose.

國外子公司 Foreign Subsidiary - directly investing in a foreign country by setting up a separate and independent production facility or office.

How Do Organizations Go Global? 如何成為國際性組織？ How Do Organizations Go Global? 61

Managing in a global Environment 3.4 全球環境下的管理 Managing in a global Environment 政治 / 法律環境 The political/Legal Environment 多數管理者都習慣在穩定的政治/法律系統內運作。良好的法律政治程序、選舉本身不會造成過多的政策不延續，大部分都在可預期的範圍內，但這不適用於所有國家。 Managers are accustomed to a stable legal and political system. Changes tend to be slow, and legal and political procedures are well established. Elections are held at regular intervals, and even when the political party in power changes after an election, it’s unlikely that anything too radical will happen. 62

經濟環境 The Economic Environment 自由市場經濟 Free Market Economy - an economic system in which resources are primarily owned and controlled by the private sector. 計畫經濟 Planned Economy - an economic system in which economic decisions are planned by a central government. 管理者需要瞭解的其他經濟因子還包括： Other economic issues managers need to understand : 1. 貨幣匯率 currency exchange rates 2. 通貨膨脹率 Inflation rates 3. 稅務政策 diverse tax policies 2002年 Argentine peso devalue 75%

文化環境 The Cultural Environment 國家文化指的是該國人民間共有的重要價值觀和態度，以形成相關的行為和信仰。 National Culture - the values and attitudes shared by individuals from a specific country that shape their behavior and beliefs about what is important. 63

Exhibit 3-4: What Are Americans Like?

美國人的特質

現今世界的全球管理 Contemporary Issues 開放的挑戰 The Challenge of Openness 恐怖主義攻擊日增 The increased threat of terrorism 經濟上之骨牌效應 The economical domino effect 一些根深蒂固的文化差異 Intense underlying and fundamental cultural differences 管理全球勞動力的挑戰 Challenge of Managing Workforce 不同文化間的衝擊有正面的影響，也同時引發因為薪資水準、溝通方式的衝突。 The cross-cultural partnership are also highlighting tensions that expose differences in work experience, pay levels, and communication. 64

管理者需要具備文化智能(cultural intelligence)，或稱文化認知(cultural awareness)及敏感度，文化智能包括： Cultural intelligence encompasses three main dimensions: (1)對文化的知識觀念 ─ 文化間的差異處，如何影響個人行為； Knowledge of culture as a concept ─ how cultures vary and how they affect behavior; (2)觀察力 ─ 對跨文化差異注意及行動的能力； Mindfulness ─ the ability to pay attention to signals and reactions, in different cross-cultural situations; (3)行動力 ─ 藉文化知識及觀察，而採取適當的行動。 Behavioral skills ─ using one’s knowledge and mindfulness to choose appropriate behaviors in those situation.

Exhibit 3-7: 全球性思維 A Global Mind-set 64