福克蘭之戰 英國vs阿根廷 1982

題綱 歷史背景 戰場 戰鬥序列 計劃 大事紀要 重要事件之分析 經驗教訓

參考資料 Arend, Anthony C. and Alberto R. Coll, 福克蘭群島 Boston: George Allen and Unwin, 1985. Beck, Peter. “Whose Island story?” 今日歷史, Feb 1989. Eddy, Paul. 福克蘭之戰全紀錄, 1982. Freedman, Lawrence. 英國與福克蘭之戰. Institute of Contemporary British History. 1988. Hastings Max and Simon Jenkins. 福克蘭之戰. 1983.

參考資料 (續...) 福克蘭軍械大觀. Blandford Press. 1985. 福島之戰. Thorn EMI Video. 福克蘭南方特遣對. Home Vision Video.

衝突背後的歷史

歷史 發現該島群 移民 - 英國 - 法國 - 西班牙 The dispute between Argentina and Great Britain over the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands can be traced to the discovery of the Islands. International Law during the 1400’s - 1800’s required International recognition of the nation state’s settlement and effective control over the area to be considered sovereign over the territory. Both country’s claims over sovereignity of the islands come from the settlement of theislands. However, international law does not clearly sustain either case because of the islands uncommonly complex history. The first englishman to land, but not settle, was John Strong and he named the Islands the Falklands. The Frenchman Antoine Louis de Bougainville created the first settlement on East Falkland in April, 1764 and called the islands the Malouines. Unknowingly to the French, an English settlement was started in 1765 on West Falkland Island and thus laid claim for Great Britian. Niether nation knew of the3 existance of the other for some time. Well, the Spanish discovered the encroachments and demanded the French and British to withdrawal. Spain sited the Pope’s Line of Demarcation which was set by the treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 (Those don’t remember their history- Portugal and Spain divided the World in two). Anyway, The French sold their settlement but the English rejected Spains authority and refused to leave. Thus, Spain forcefully removed the English settlement in 1770 and renamed the isles Malvinas. England threatened to go to war with Spain which resulted with the Spanish replacing the colony in 1771. The victory was short lived. The English were forced to abandon the colony in May 1774, when troubles arose in the American colonies. Thus, Spains control over the Islands until 1806. The British never offically gave up their claim to the island.

歷史回顧 重要事件 - 西班牙撤離 - 阿根廷獨立 -美國介入 - 英國佔領 Key events: SPANISH WITHDRAWEL: Spainish withdrew their military forces from the islands and the region in 1806 because of War with England. Their colonists abandon the islands in 1811. The local spanish government in Buenos Aires was uable to assert its authority over the Falklands. For the next nine years whalers and traders from numerous nations used the islands as they wished. LED to NEW GOVERNMENT: By 1816 the Buenos Aires government declared their independence from Spain. (the forerunner to present day Argentina) Laid claim to previous spainish lands and territories. Most western nations did not take the new government or its claims over territory serously. By the 1820’s they started to repopulate and take control over the Islands. They established their first governer in 1829. Basically, controlled the islands for 11 years. LED TO INCIDENT: Until they had a run in with U.S.America. Aparently, incident with three American fishing vessels, abused american sailors. The USS Lexington sacked the island’s defenses, destroyed the settlement, and imprisioned most of the inhabitants, and WAS FREE OF ALL GOVERNMENT. LED TO BRITISH to reclaim the islands. Buenos Aires government was unable to reestablish effective control over the falklands. Britian claimed abandonment of the isles and took possion in 1833. Slowly over time English colonists replaced the old inhabitants of the islands. Great Britian would remain in control of the Falklands until present day, ecept for a few months in 1982 .

歷史回顧 Prior to United Nations: 阿根廷宣稱 Prior to United Nations: 1) Never relinquished claims on the islands. 2) Demarcation Line of 1494. 3) Inheritance of Sovereignty. 4) Rights under occupation and settlement. After United Nations: 1) British took the islands by force. 2) The islands were part of the Argentine coast. 3) Security threat from the British possession of the islands. 4) Great Britain maintaining a colonial possession Argentine: Prior to UN Arguments: 1) Never relinquished claims on the islands. Offical protests were documented in 1842, 1880s, and 1908. 2) Demarcation Line of 1494-- NOT RECOGNIZED BY OTHER NATIONS 3) Inheritance of Sovereignty from mother country (SPAIN) in 1820. DECLARED INDEPENCE, 1816 SPAIN RECOGNIZED 7yr LATER BUT NOT RECOGNIZE ANY TERRITORIAL CLAIMS 4) Rights under occupation and settlement of islands with effective control over the islands from 1820 - 1830. YES, U.S. AMERICA NOT DESTROYED ISLAND SETTLEMENT BRITISH NOT HAVE THE OPORTUNITY COME IN After UN 1) British took the islands by Force. NOT CORRECT - AGRENTIN LEFT 2) The islands were part of the Argentine coast by way of the continatal shelf. UNTRUE SCIENTIST SAY FROM AFRICA 3) British possession of the islands were a direct threat to the security of Argentina. BEEN THERE 149 YEARS WITHOUT BEING ATTACKED 4) Holding a Colonial possession as amember of the united nations was illegal and decolonization ploicies should be enacted. NOT A COLONY 80% NATIVE BORN - self determination. SPEAK ENGLISH,

History British Claims Prior to United Nations: 1) Discovery of the Island 2) Never relinquished claim to the islands. 3) Never recognized the Buenos Aires government claim on the islands. 4) Islands were abandoned in 1833. After United Nations: 1) UN Charter - The rights of self-determination. 2) Doctrine of Prescription. British: 1) First to discovery Island-- INCORRECT HAD TO SETTLE AND HAVE EFFECTIVE CONTROL 2) Didn’t give up claim to the islands. LEFT ISLAND AMER REVOL. 3) Didn’t recognized the Buenos Aires government claim on the islands. nEITHER DID THE uNITED STATES 4) Claimed the Islands were abandend in 1833. Int. Law legally TO DO SO HOWEVER- IF USS LEXINGTON HAD NOT DESTROYED THE SETTLEMENT AND DEFENSES. STILL HAD SMALL CONTIGENT OF TROOPS AND ADMINISTRATORS ON THE ISLAND. After UN 5) UN charter protects the rights of self determination UNDER ARTICLE 73 -- FAULKL;ANDERS DON’T WANT BE RULED BY FOREIGN GOVERNMENT. ADDRESSED THE UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY 1964. 6) Doctrine of prescrition - a nation which has continuously occupied a territory originally owned by another state, for over a long period of time is a condition for ownership. OCCUPATION MUST BE ACCEPATBLE TO THE NATIONS OF THE WORLD AND NOT REJECTED BY ANOTHER CLAIMENT WHO PERSISTANT IN COMPETING DEMANDS.

History 國際法 阿根廷觀點 英國觀點 國際社會 INTERNATIONAL LAW - - BASICALLY, LEGALITY OF WHO OWNS THE ISLANDS WILL NEVER BE CLEAR. HOWEVER, UNDER CURRENT INTERNATIONAL LAW SELF-DETERMINATION WOULD HAVE A BETTER CHANCE AT SUCEDEDING ININTERNATIONAL COURT. ARGENTINA- POLITICAL UNREST- MILITARY LEADERSHIP BELIEVED WAR BRITISH- ENTERED NEGITIONS TO SETTLE DISPUTE. WANTED A PEACEFUL SOLTION UNTIL ISLANDS ATTACKED. INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY -- PERCEIVED THE ARGENTINEANS AS THE AGRESSORS. 1947 GREAT BRITIAN WILLING TO LET INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE, IN 1947 -- ARGENTINA DECLINED 1966 RADICALS ATTEMPTED AN ASSUALT ON THE ISLANDS 1977 CUT OFF FUEL AND SUPPLIES TO ISLANDS SHORT TIME 1982 TOOK SOUTH GEORGIA ISLANDS, THEN THE FALKLANDS

戰場

地形概述 4,700 平方哩 地形起伏, 無樹之泥煤土質 東西有岩峰 最大標高 2000 呎 Good morning gentlemen, I am Capt Al-Otaibi. I will be briefing you on the terrain and weather of the Falkland Islands. This direction is north. The islands have an area of 4,700 square miles. The land consists of rolling, treeless hills. There are two ridges with rocky peaks running east-west across the northern half of East Falkland. The highest elevation is slightly over two thousand feet. The key areas we are concerned with are Port Stanley, Port San Carlos, Pebble Island and Goose Green Isthmus

水文 機動空間寬闊 福克蘭灣內機動受限 可資掩蔽之海灘多 灘底土質適於登陸 潮流適合 LCU 作業 The surrounding ocean is very rough, making landings on the exterior coast close to impossible. The open ocean provides plenty of room for maneuver. Within Falkland Sound and the bays maneuverability is restricted. There are numerous bays which are suitable for an amphibious assault. Port San Carlos Has the best landing area to establish a beach head.

地形要點 機場 史坦利港四周高地 聖卡羅斯四周高地 史坦利港 小石島 鵝綠 The key terrain of the Falklands consists of the airfields located at Port Stanley, Pebble Island and Goose Green. The high ground around San Carlos and Port Stanley are also key terrain because of the observation and fields of fire they provide.

障礙 無阻止步兵之天然障礙 車輛行駛困難 直昇機任何地方均可著陸 The rolling terrain and lack of vegetation make movement easy for infantry. The ground is soft, making vehicle movement very difficult. The large open areas provide numerous helicopter landing zones.

隱蔽與掩蔽 地形起伏 無植物 山脊掩蔽地面及空中運動 The rolling hills provide both cover and concealment to ground forces. The lack of vegetation makes it difficult to conceal forces from aircraft. The long central ridges provide masking for helicopter movement.

接近路線 道路網不良 均可越野 山脊形成東西向接近路線 There is a very poor road network. Most roads are unimproved and do not provide routes across the island. Cross country travel is required between settlements. Air routes are provided by the ridges, which mask the movement of aircraft.

天候 為南半球之冬季 零下氣溫 無降水 作戰期間晴朗 海象惡劣 During the time of the battle it was winter in the southern half of the world. Temperatures were below freezing at night and in the forties during the day. There was no significant precipitation. Seas were rough with forty knot winds from the south-east.

戰鬥序列

英國海軍 兩艘航母，荷姆斯號及無敵號 32 艘各型巡防艦及驅逐艦 6 艘潛艦 8 艘登陸艦 12 艘人員艦 8 艘補給艦 18 艘支援艦 21 艘油艦

船艦 雪菲爾號

戰機 1 架火神式轟炸機 40 架海獵應戰機 各型直昇機，以中型通用機居多

戰機 海獵應

英國地面部隊 地面部隊指揮官，皇家陸戰隊少將 吉瑞米·摩爾 總兵力 3,500 人 第3突擊兵旅，旅長 朱利安·湯普生准將 第5 步兵旅，旅長安東尼·威爾森准將

英國裝備 蠍式輕戰車4輛 (主砲口徑76公厘) Scimitar 型輕戰車4輛 (30公厘機砲) 英式105公釐輕榴砲 18門 蠍式輕戰車4輛 (主砲口徑76公厘) Scimitar 型輕戰車4輛 (30公厘機砲) 英式105公釐輕榴砲 18門 義式 56 型105公厘山砲6門 Rapier 防空飛彈 吹管世肩射防空飛彈 米蘭反戰車飛彈 AIM-9L 響尾蛇飛彈

車輛 蠍式

阿根廷海軍 並未擔任要角

阿根廷空軍 幻象 III型戰機43架 天鷹式戰機68架 超級軍旗戰機10架 C-130 Pucara 地面攻擊機

Aircraft A4 Sky Hawk

飛彈 飛魚反艦飛彈

東福克蘭地面部隊 鵝綠 史坦利港 在防空掩護下之六個步兵團 在防空掩護下之兩個步兵團 30x105mm, 4x155mm 12 食人魚甲車 8,400 troops 鵝綠 在防空掩護下之兩個步兵團 3x105mm 1,200

西福克蘭之地面部隊 霍華港 步兵團1，2兵連﹝欠﹞ 788 狐灣 889

裝備 AML-90 輕裝甲車 (90mm) AAV-7 履帶登陸車 法製50型155榴砲 飛魚反艦飛彈 AIM-9L 響尾蛇空對空飛彈

車輛 AAVP7

戰略及作戰計劃

阿根廷的假定事項 英國無意真正奪取福克蘭 美國無支持阿根廷而保持中立 第三世界國家在聯合國支持阿根廷 OAS 無支持阿根廷 入侵者使阿根廷團結起來

阿根廷之戰略計劃 以奇襲防止增援 避免平民傷亡 遊說 UN 及 OAS支持

阿根廷作戰計劃 於木地布魯克（ Moody Brook)以兩棲突擊消滅或俘盧英陸戰隊 奪取史坦利港 守住機場港口 建立前進機場（備援) 綿密哨戒

英軍之假定事項 阿根廷不敢輕啟戰端 英國艦隊有絕對優勢

英國戰略計劃 儘速出動艦隊施加壓力，展現決心 於 UN 及 EEC 爭取同情 運用經濟制裁

外交戰 安理會第 502 號決議 要求阿根廷撤軍 外交折衝取代兵戎相見 EEC 同意經濟制裁 OAS 拒絕支持阿根廷

英作戰計劃 儘早部署特遣隊 於亞森松群島（ Ascencion Islands)進行預演的再裝載 200 浬經濟海域 建立登陸條件 海優 空優

外交失敗 美國務卿海格穿梭外交 撤軍 過渡行政處理 長期性解決 祕魯提出的建議 與海格同 美國最終仍提供英國情報及後勤支援

PERMA Plan（計劃), Embark（裝載), Rehearse（預演), Movement（運動), Assault（突擊) 裝載前計劃尚未開始 任務編組未依作戰目的及行動所需 行政與戰術裝載

英作戰計劃 奪取南喬治亞島（ South Georgia Island) 於封鎖海域建立海、空優 突襲奪佔福克蘭島

英戰術計劃 選定三個可能登陸位置 史帝威利灣（Steveley Bay) – 西福克蘭 聖卡羅斯 史坦利附近之 Berkeley 灣

史帝威利灣 優點 敵防禦薄弱或甚至無防禦 可於近岸建立機場 缺點 須額外裝在及下卸

聖卡羅斯 優點 抵抗小或無抵抗 有灘頭可提供後勤支援 有鑑對守護 缺點 距史坦利港較遠

Berkeley Sound 優點 達成任務最迅速 地面運動較短 缺點 防務堅強 所有補給均依賴海上

Sequence of Key Events 2 Apr - Argentine invasion 5 Apr - Carrier Group sails 25 Apr - South Georgia recaptured 1 May - SAS, SBS, NGF, and air raids 2 May - General Belgrano sunk 4 May - Sheffield sunk 14 May - SAS raid on Pebble Island

Sequence of Key Events (cont...) 21 May - Landing at Port Carlos 28 May - Battle of Goose Green 11 Jun - Battles of Mount Longdon, Mount Harriet, and Two Sisters 12 Jun - Battles of Tumbledown Mountain and Wireless Ridge 14 Jun - Argentineans surrender Port Stanley

評析

Bottom Line 英軍訓練精良,領導統御卓,越戰場狀況監控良好及堅定意志,使其能奔襲8000哩,在不毛之地徒步行軍70哩,仍擊潰四倍兵力之敵.

Bottom Line 阿根廷未能奪得主動權,只有任由英軍掌握整個作戰地區.

結語 裝備相近 阿軍有以逸代勞之利 英軍兵力較少 阿軍握有整個作戰的重心,史坦利港

評析 英方較能掌握戰術狀況 整合戰力足以擊潰阿軍 後勤有重點(阻敵與保障自己) 隨時爭取主動 To include naval assets

評析 阿根廷未能在適當時機採取決定性行動. 未能運用聯合兵種. 領導失當,士兵戰鬥意志低落.

評析 未能於聖卡羅斯切斷敵補給線 未有效運用海軍 未形成重點 將主動權拱手讓與英軍

補充分析 海獵鷹轟炸史坦利 貝爾格蘭號沉沒 Exocet and the H.M.S. Sheffield Aviation locations Actions at San Carlos Engagement at Goose Green Air raid at Fitzroy Mount Longdon Port Stanley falls

海獵鷹轟炸史坦利 完全沒有準備 防空砲兵全部失敗 攻擊後 極出色的欺敵計劃 Argentines had no air defense artillery assets available that could effectively engage the Harrier or the Vulcan Bombers Used triple AAA weapons located near the airfield. Could not engage the harriers quick enough. Later established a Air Defense with missiles claimed one plane their own. After area had been bombed troops fled the area and reestablished their defenses elsewhere. Defenses were set up on the airfield because we were expecting a military attack i.e. Air Assault or amphibious in the area Established a deception plan created false crater rings around the airfield and on the airfield to show the British they were successful in their attack. Run way was still completely operational. Although we could not establish a high performance base on the Island.

貝爾格蘭號沉沒 船隻並未完成戰備 船位於經濟海域範圍外 阿根廷人示威 兩國敵對無可避免

飛魚飛彈與雪菲爾號 以超級軍旗號低空攻擊 海標飛彈無法接戰2000呎以下目標 阿根廷曾以本國驅逐艦演練 知道而精研英軍戰術 阿根廷報復貝爾格蘭將軍號被擊沉 討論阿空軍及陳雪菲爾號之戰術與技術(海標飛彈失效) 以驅逐艦演練 嘗試攻擊英軍的重心何姆斯號及無敵號兩艘航母 很多人認為阿根廷根本選錯目標 但阿軍確實必須先清除航母的哨戒艦

陸航位置 Mainland Argentina, Port Stanley, Goose Green, Darwin Only Pucaras could occupy air strips on the Falklands Lack coordination on attacks, piecemeal The vast location differences of airfields created large problems both logistically, and tactically. Air force assets had little loiter time, British used this to their advantage. Would keep Hermes and the Invincible out at Sea and other ships masked against the shoreline. Majority of Pucaras were ineffective agains the British fleet, most were destroyed on the ground. All the air attacks were piecemeal. Never massed fires on the objective. Planes would come over in ones and twos. Many planes were shot down prior t even arriving at the Falkland.

於聖卡羅斯之行動 建立了最低線之防衛,一個排瞰制 無法對入侵部隊展開協調性逆襲 常市從空中去打擊登陸但英軍已完成灘頭堡之建立 一個排已經進入陣地我認為應均會盡量靠近史坦利建立灘頭堡.而且灘頭堡一建立就會對該鎮實施空中突擊 知道我犯錯後乃決心於登陸點實施空中攻擊以擊沉登陸船艦 討論英軍的戰術並思考如何對付.我損失了很多第一線戰士,對英軍後勤系統產生莫大破壞性效果. Discuss British tactics and mine to counter act theirs. Lost many of my top of the line fighters. Had devastating effects on the British logistical system

鵝綠 阿根廷可行砲兵集火 空攻失敗 奮勇抵抗空中攻擊,使英軍幾難以為繼,但因為實施逆襲而功敗垂成. 士兵經驗不足,戰志不甚高昂 我們已偵知英軍行蹤但無積極作為 我們火力支援運用得非常好讓英軍瀕於失利 Failed to counter attack and push 2 Para of the OBJ 防禦失敗守軍投降而且逆席發起過遲預備隊都往南去了 放棄鵝綠鎮及所有防務 此為英軍所必取,若阿軍據此,可攻擊英軍登陸灘頭而瓦解整個攻勢..

於費哲瑞之空攻 英軍強攻 使登陸艦隊頓失空中掩護 有一個建立強力一級之機會 炸彈在Sir Galahad引爆 Last ditch effort to try and get the British to withdraw from the theater with high losses, also we destroyed a weapons / supply cache Attack was extremely successful, but did not stop the advance

朗登高地 夜視裝備成為勝敗關鍵 未能實施逆襲 朗登高地終被英軍奪取

史坦利港失陷 其他各山頭相當有系統地逐一失陷 未能有效運用朗登(Longdon),係阿根廷的敗筆 史坦利港守是投降

經驗教訓

經驗教訓 拿破崙:「戰爭中士氣高昂的一方,可以以一抵三」. 卓越的領導,素質高的部隊,可以克服數量與科技的弱點. 若不實施逆襲,再堅強的防禦也會被攻破. 一種僅針對一個敵人設計的準則是不能應對所有狀況的.