全球貿易環境： 區域市場特性與 互惠貿易協定 第3章 全球貿易環境： 區域市場特性與 互惠貿易協定

GATT 關稅暨貿易總協定(General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) 1947年創立，各會員國為促進彼此間貿易關係而建立的 推動全球各國政府合力解決貿易問題，各國參與談判，促進世界商品貿易的自由化 缺乏強制力 1995年被世界貿易組織(World Trade Organization)取代

世界貿易組織 提供150個會員國貿易談判的論壇 總部設於日內瓦 爭端解決機構DSB來解決全球貿易紛爭 有權實施貿易制裁 The website for the WTO is www.wto.org The Dispute Settlement Body of neutral staff members mediates unfair trade barriers and other issues. For 60 days, parties are expected to negotiate in good faith. After that, the DSB will appoint a three member panel of trade experts to hear the case behind closed doors. The panel must rule in nine months. The losing party has the right to turn to a seven-member appellate body. If, after due process, a country’s policies are found to violate WTO rules, it is expected to change those policies. If it does not, trade sanctions may be imposed. Trade ministers meet annually to work on improving world trade. The Doha Round began in 2001, collapsed in 2005 and has not been restarted as of Sept. 2007.

優惠貿易協定 許多國家尋求在其區域內裡進行自由貿易 優惠是給予特定幾個國家，這樣的協定將對其他國家造成差別待遇 當某些國家採用優惠貿易協定時，必須知會WTO It is customary to notify the WTO when countries enter into PTAs. Strictly speaking, few fully conform to WTO requirements; none, however, has been disallowed.

自由貿易區 當兩個以上的國家同意消除關稅與其他限制貿易的障礙時 對其他國家仍保持獨立的貿易政策 原產地規則不鼓勵商品進入對外關稅最低的會員國，再轉賣到另一對外關稅較高的會員國，海關調查人員會負責會員國之間的監督 Sometimes duties may be eliminated on the day of the agreement or phased out over time. Chile and Canada established a FTA in 1997. A Caterpillar tractor made in Canada could be shipped to Chile duty free. A U.S. made tractor could not be shipped through Canada to Chile because the Made in the USA label would subject it to about $13,000 in duties. Little wonder that the U.S. negotiated its own agreement with Chile that came into effect in 2003. Other FTAs: European Economic Union—the EU plus Norway, Liechtenstein, and Iceland The Group of Three (G3)—Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela The Closer Economic Partnership Agreement—China and Hong Kong 渥太華抗議北美自由貿易協定(NAFTA)的活動

關稅同盟 自由貿易區的進化版 消除會員國之間的關稅障礙（同自由貿易區） 同盟成員同意建立共同對外關稅 例如: 歐盟跟土耳其（撤銷14%關稅，使土耳其進口歐洲商品的成本年減15億美元） The EU’s and Turkey’s agreement eliminated tariffs averaging 14% that added $1.5 billion/year to the cost of European goods imported into Turkey.

共同市場 消除內部貿易障礙 （同自由貿易區） 建立期同對外關稅（同關稅同盟） 允許人力與資本等生產因素在會員國間自由流動 Current Central and South American customs unions may evolve into common markets.

經濟同盟 消除內部貿易障礙 （同自由貿易區） 建立期同對外關稅（同關稅同盟） 允許人力與資本等生產因素在會員國間自由流動 （同共同市場） 在同盟內整合與協調經濟與社會政策 In the European Union, countries must harmonize their licensing standards so that professionals such as doctors or lawyers qualified in one country may work in another. Harmonization is an important concept to be stressed.

經濟同盟 經濟同盟的完整演化： 聯合中央銀行的建立 單一貨幣的通行 建立共同的農業、社會服務與福利、區域發展、交通運輸、稅制等政策 需要廣泛的政治統合 狀況與國家相當類似 歐盟國旗 The EU has not ratified the European Constitution. It was approved by 16 countries but derailed after voters in France and the Netherlands vetoed it.

北美自由貿易協定 北美自由貿易協定（NAFTA）成員：加拿大，美國，墨西哥 協定內容： 三國政府同意藉由關稅減免、 擴大貿易與投資促進經濟成長 無共同對外關稅 保留會員國間的勞工及其他要 素流動的相關限制 The U.S. is home to more global industry leaders than any other nation and dominates in the computer, software, aerospace, entertainment, medical equipment, and jet engine industries. The agreement does leave the door open for discretionary protectionism. California avocado growers won government protection for a $250 million market. Mexican avocado growers can only ship during the winter and only to the northeast U.S. and are subject to a $30 million quota. Mexico imposed tariffs on chicken leg quarters and on red and golden apples. The U.S. and Canada formed the Canada-U.S. Free Trade Area in 1989. The $400 billion of goods traded each year is the biggest trading relationship between any two countries. In 1994, the U.S., Canada, and Mexico began trading under NAFTA. The NAFTA represents a combined population of roughly 430 million and a total GNI of almost $14 trillion. 美墨邊境

北美自由貿易協定(NAFTA) 會員國之所得與人口

2008年美國出口貨品

2008年美國進口貨品

拉丁美洲地區 包括加勒比海及中南美洲 經歷十多年經濟停滯、通貨膨脹情形嚴重、外債增加、保護主義及政府薪資支出過高，拉丁美洲國家開始進行經濟轉型 平衡預算為各國施政的要務，且推動國營企業民營化，自由市場、開放經濟及法令鬆綁 各國決策者仍懷疑參與全球經濟的好處 The allure of the Latin American market has been its considerable size and huge resource base. After a decade of no growth, crippling inflation, increasing foreign debt, protectionism, and bloated government payrolls, the countries of Latin America have begun the process of economic transformation. Balanced budgets are a priority and privatization is underway. Free markets, open economies, and deregulation have begun to replace the policies of the past. With the exception of Cuba, democratically elected governments are found throughout Latin America. Policy makers have recognized the benefits of free-market forces and the advantages of participating fully in the global economy. In many countries, tariffs that sometimes reached as much as 100 percent or more have been lowered to 10 to 20 percent. Global corporations are encouraged by import liberalization, the prospects for lower tariffs within subregional trading groups, and the potential for establishing more efficient regional production. Many observers envision a FTA throughout the region.

中美洲四個重要的 優惠貿易協定 中美洲整合體(SICA)：薩爾瓦多, 宏都拉斯, 瓜地馬拉, 尼加拉瓜, 哥斯大黎加, 巴拿馬 安地斯共同體 南美洲共同市場 加勒比海共同市場 Originally established in the early 1960s, the five original countries decided to reestablish the Central American Common Market. The name was changed to SICA with the entrance of Panama in 1997. The region’s attempts to achieve integration have been described as uncoordinated, inefficient, and costly. 中美洲整合體(SICA)

亞太地區：東南亞國協 最大貿易夥伴為日本,美國,歐盟及中國 「東協加六」(日,中,韓,澳,紐,印)正努力建立東亞共同體 東協(ASEAN)會員國

東協會員國國民總收入及人口

新加坡 全世界第二大貨櫃港 生活水準僅次於日本 有420萬名公民 93%的人具讀寫能力 超過三千家公司在新加坡投資或設營運中心 犯罪率幾乎是零 Singapore went from a British colony to a 240 sq. mile industrial power in less than 30 years. It accounts for more than 1/3 of U.S. trading with ASEAN. 2003: $16.5 billion in U.S. exports; $15.1 in U.S. imports 32% of imports are redirected to neighbors.

亞太地區的行銷課題 日本市場：有彈性、企圖心以及長期的承諾（長期提供高品質的產品與服務） 產品與行銷活動必須針對當地品味量身訂做 重複拜訪及與批發商進行社交活動是建立信任感的必要動作 在日本行銷的消費包裝產品，標籤上都有英文、法文或德文，營造出國際性或西式外觀，可幫助產品銷售

歐洲聯盟 (European Union, EU) 可追溯到1958年的羅馬條約 目標：整合個別法律和管制，使得產品、服務、人員及貨幣在各國間自由流通 1992年底採行的歐洲單一法案(Single European Act)是歐洲共同體的重大成就 部長理事會施行282個立法案和管制來落實單一市場。

歐洲聯盟 27國 4億9千1百萬人 1999年發行歐元 行銷挑戰：如何在世界上最大、最穩定、最富有的市場中發展出抓住市場機會的策略 企業必須調整內部結構，以掌握歐洲市場

中東地區 16國：阿富汗、巴林、賽浦勒斯、埃及、伊朗、伊拉克、以色列、約旦、科威特、黎巴嫩、阿曼、卡達、沙烏地阿拉伯、敘利亞、阿拉伯聯合大公國（包括阿布達比與杜拜）以及葉門 主要人口是阿拉伯人，還有波斯人與少許猶太人 95%伊斯蘭教, 5%基督教各猶太教 石油的價格驅動中東的商業發展 七大產油國：巴林、伊拉克、伊朗、科威特、阿曼卡達與沙烏地阿拉伯 沙烏地阿拉伯的石油蘊藏量佔全球25%，是中東最重要的市場 Countries fall into all categories of economic freedom as discussed in Chapter 2. The price of oil drives business. Bahrain, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia hold significant world oil reserves. Saudi Arabia, with 22 million people and 25% of the world’s oil, is the most important market in the region. Connection is a key word in conducting business in the Middle East. Forming relationships, establishing trust, and respect are key. Arab businesspeople do business in person, not over the phone or through correspondence. Women are not usually part of a business or social scene for traditional Arabs.

海灣合作理事會 1981年由巴林、科威特、阿曼、卡達、沙烏地阿拉伯以及阿拉伯聯合大公國創立 這六國的石油蘊藏量佔全球的45% 這些國家正積極進行經濟的多角化發展 海灣合作理事會提供在經濟社會與文化事務上協調、整合與合作的方法 行銷議題：建立關係、討價還價、習慣和個人做生意、男性主導

非洲 人口占世界的11.5％，財富卻僅占1.3％ 區域協定：南非開發共同體SADC 目標：促進共同體中，黑人統治國家的貿易、合作與經濟整合=>發展完善的關稅同盟 南非在1994年加入，占該區所得的75%和區域內出口的86% 11.7 million sq. miles, or 3 ½ times the size of the U.S. 1.3% of world’s wealth 11.5% of world’s population Average per capita income of less than $600 Arabs of northern Africa are politically and economically differentiated from the rest of the continent. Libya, Algeria, and Egypt benefit from oil resources.

ECFA效應 台灣與新加坡的FTA 2009年台星貿易額為129.6億美元，佔總貿易額的3.33%，為台灣第六大貿易國 新加坡是東協會員國之一，也與印度簽署全面經濟合作協定，台灣與新加坡的經濟合作，將有利於台商進入東協與印度市場