Chapter 16 全球行銷的領導、組織與控制 Global Marketing Warren J. Keegan Mark C. Green

領導 「領導並不是階級、職銜或身分地位；領導是發揮影響力去主導變革。領導並不是自誇自己擁有權力或對抗他人，或是利用它來累積財富；領導是將多重層級相互連結在一起，並帶領員工的心智，在新世紀中讓他人有權為自己作決定，讓他人有權達成其全部潛能。領導者不再只是審視策略、把執行視為抽象概念，而是必須了解到，人才是最重要的因素。」 －惠普前執行長菲奧莉娜 Global marketing demands exceptional leadership. The hallmark of a global company is the capacity to formulate and implement global strategies that leverage worldwide learning, respond fully to local needs and wants, and draw on the talent and energy of every member of the organization. This heroic task requires global vision and sensitivity to local needs. Overall, the leader’s challenge is to direct the efforts and creativity of everyone in the company toward a global effort that best utilizes organizational resources to exploit global opportunities.

領導（續） 領導的任務重要性在於清楚說明 公司的信仰 價值觀 政策 公司預期的活動範疇

－學者Christopher Bartlett 最高管理者的國籍 「美國公司開始了解他們擁有世界性的人才資源組合，公司的最佳技術人才可能來自德國，而其財務經理則可能來自英國。這些公司開始運用全球的人才資源。所以，看到非美國人晉升到這些公司的最高管理職位也不足為奇。」 －學者Christopher Bartlett

領導和核心能力 在1990年代，評估公司高階經理人應根據他們確認、培養和開發能使組織大幅成長的核心專長能力 核心能力必須 提供潛在寬闊多樣化的市場 製作對顧客最有益的最終產品 使競爭者難以模仿 Few companies are likely to build world leadership in more than five or six fundamental competencies. In the long run, an organization will derive its global competitiveness from its ability to bring high-quality, low-cost products to market faster than its competitors. To do this, an organization must be viewed as a portfolio of competencies rather than a portfolio of businesses.

組織 成立組織的目標是為了要找到一個結構 使公司有能力回應相關市場環境的差異 確保公司整體都能分享各個國家市場的知識和經驗 全球銷售組織的集中知識與協調，以及必須個別回應當地市場的情況，兩者間的拉力為全球化行銷組織創造一種持續的張力 A key issue in global organization is how to achieve balance between autonomy and integration. Subsidiaries need autonomy to adapt to their local environment, but the business as a whole needs integration to implement global strategy.

組織（續） 沒有一個適當的組織結構適用於全球行銷 全球性的頂尖企業在組織結構的設計上都有一個共同特性： 企業結構扁平且單純 新的公司組織設計要能回應21世紀的競爭環境 結構設計必須更具回應能力和彈性，才能使組織扁平化並妥善運用團隊 Recently, several authors have described new organization designs that represent responses to today’s the competitive environment. These designs acknowledge the need to find more responsive and flexible structures, to flatten the organization, and to employ teams. There is the recognition of the need to develop networks, to develop stronger relationships among participants, and to exploit technology. These designs also reflect an evolution in approaches to organizational effectiveness. At the turn of the century, Frederick Taylor claimed that all managers had to see the world the same way. Then came the contingency theorists who said that effective organizations design themselves to match their conditions. These two basic theories are reflected in today’s popular management writings. As Henry Mintzberg has observed, “To Michael Porter, effectiveness resides in strategy, while to Tom Peters it is the operations that count—executing any strategy with excellence.”

國際化組織的發展型態 組織型態的變化是基於以下條件，包括全球目標市場的大小及潛力、不同國家市場的本土化管理能力 公司組織的內部衝突壓力，將會因產品及技術的知識需求、行銷、財務、生產作業等專業功能，以及區域和國家知識等因素而增加 Because the constellation of pressures that shape organizations is never exactly the same, no two organizations pass through organizational stages in exactly the same way, nor do they arrive at precisely the same organizational pattern. Nevertheless, some general patterns hold. These will be discussed in the next few slides.

國際部門結構 As a company’s international business grows, the complexity of coordinating and directing this activity extends beyond the scope of a single person. Pressure is created to assemble a staff that will take responsibility for coordination and direction of the growing international activities of the organization. Eventually, this pressure leads to the creation of the international division. The executive in charge of the international division typically has a direct reporting relationship to corporate staff and thus ranks at the same level as the executives in charge of finance, marketing, operations, and other functional areas.

國際部門結構（續） 國際部門的建立有四個因素 最高執行單位對全球營運的承諾，須建立組織部門並任命高階經理人來執行 國際營運的複雜性須以單一部門執行業務 當公司發覺需要內部的專業人員來配合全球營運時，就會成立國際部門 公司在追求全球發展的機會和預防競爭的威脅時，就應成立海外部門來回應這個情況

區域管理中心 When business is conducted in a single region that is characterized by similarities in economic, social, geographical, and political conditions, there is both justification and need for a management center. This stage of organizational evolution is the emergence of an area or regional headquarters as a management layer between the country organization and the international division headquarters. A regional center typically coordinates decisions on pricing, sourcing, and other matters. Executives at the regional center also participate in the planning and control of each country’s operations with an eye toward applying company knowledge on a regional basis and optimally utilizing corporate resources on a regional basis.

地理和產品部門結構 As a company becomes more global, management frequently faces the dilemma of whether to organize by geography or by product lines. The geographical structure involves the assignment of operational responsibility for geographic areas of the world to line managers. The corporate headquarters retains responsibility for worldwide planning and control, and each area of the world—including the “home” or base market—is organizationally equal. When an organization assigns regional or worldwide product responsibility to its product divisions, manufacturing standardization can result in significant economies.

矩陣組織的設計 產品、業務、功能和顧客的知識領域都同時集中於全球行銷市場目標 矩陣組織的管理任務可實現組織的平衡，結合不同觀點和技術以完成組織的目標 Professor John Hunt of the London Business School suggests four considerations regarding the matrix organizational design. First, the matrix is appropriate when the market is demanding and dynamic. Second, employees must accept higher levels of ambiguity and understand that policy manuals cannot cover every eventuality. Third, in country markets where the command-and-control model persists, it is best to overlay matrices on only small portions of the workforce. Finally, management must be able to clearly state what each axis of the matrix can and cannot do. However, this must be accomplished without creating a bureaucracy

矩陣組織的設計（續） 地理知識：企業可藉由當地子公司獲得一國基本的政治、經濟、社會、文化等知識 產品知識與技能知識：公司可以複製國內和國際部門的產品管理組織，進而取得這兩個單位在產品知識和技能知識的高度競爭力 Having established that the matrix is appropriate, management can expect the matrix to integrate four basic competencies on a worldwide basis:

矩陣組織的設計（續） 財務、生產等，特別是行銷方面的功能性競爭能力 了解顧客或產業的需求

矩陣組織的設計（續） This organization chart starts with a bottom section that represents a single-country responsibility level, moves to representing the area or international level, and finally moves to representing global responsibility from the product divisions to the corporate staff, to the chief executive at the top of the structure.

全球行銷管理控制 控制意指管理者確保資源使用的過程中得到充分且有效的運用，以達成理想目標 規劃流程可劃分為兩個相關階段： 策略規劃是選擇和淘汰關於產品產量和市場適應能力，與人力與財務資源的投入以達成目標 作業規劃則是另一個階段，在於將策略性產品或市場需求的目標及資源投入，轉化為特定的專案計畫 Global marketing presents formidable problems to managers responsible for marketing control. Each national market is different from every other market. Distance and differences in language, custom, and practice create communications problems. As noted earlier in the chapter, in larger companies, the size of operations and number of country subsidiaries often result in the creation of an intermediate headquarters. This adds an organizational level to the control system.

全球行銷管理控制（續） This slide illustrates the relationship of strategic planning, operational planning and the control process.

正式的控制方法 規劃 預算安排 以數量和金額決定期望的銷售額和理想目標，以及計畫的行銷支出 用來表明這些目標和支出的正式文件 Planning and budgeting are two basic tools of formal marketing control. Planning is determining desired sales and profit objectives and projected marketing program expenditures in unit and money terms. The formal document in which these objectives and expenditures are expressed is a budget. Control consists of measuring actual sales and expenditures. In the case of no variance (or a favorable variance) between actual and budget, no action is usually taken. An unfavorable variance—lower unit sales than planned, for example—acts as a red flag that attracts the attention of line and staff executives at regional and international headquarters. They will investigate and attempt to determine the cause of the unfavorable variance and what might be done to improve performance.

對行銷預算的影響 市場潛量：這個市場產品的銷售潛量有多大？ 競爭性：一個市場的計畫與安排必須以積極正面的方式在競爭市場中形成 替代品的衝擊：市場中，一個產品的競爭來源在於它的可替代性 流程：目前最常用的方法就是「指示性規劃法」 In preparing a budget or plan, these factors are important.

全球行銷稽核 全面且有系統的檢視行銷環境、公司目標、策略、規劃、政策和相關活動 特性： 評估和促進公司（或是商業單位）在全球行銷運作的一項工具 特性： 正式且有系統的 必須定期進行 The objective of periodic audits is to identify existing and potential problems and opportunities in a company’s marketing performance and to recommend a plan of action for improving that performance. In other words, the global marketing audit is a tool for evaluating and improving a company’s (or business unit’s) global marketing operations.

全球行銷稽核（續） 內部 獨立 由了解該產業的人來執行 一個內部的審計可以相當具有價值，然而可能缺乏獨立稽核人員的客觀性 由某個對公司組織無影響力的人來執行 提供客觀性，但稽核人員可能對此行業缺乏了解

設立稽核目標及範圍 稽核的工作主要著重在蒐集資料。周詳的訪談計畫、次級資料分析、內部文件的覆審等都是必備的 The first step of an audit is a meeting between company executives and the auditor to agree on objectives, coverage, depth, data sources, report format, and time period for the audit.

執行稽核 第一步驟是高階主管與稽核人員之間的會議研討，透過會議雙方在稽核的目標、範圍、深度、資料來源、報告方式及審核的期間等方面取得雙方共識 蒐集資料 報告的準備及作簡報

行銷稽核構成的要件 行銷環境稽核 行銷策略稽核 行銷組織稽核 行銷系統稽核 行銷生產力稽核 行銷功能稽核