園藝學原理 Chapter 2 - 植物的分類 PLANT CLASSIFICATION

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1 園藝學原理 Chapter 2 - 植物的分類 PLANT CLASSIFICATION
張育森 教授 國立臺灣大學 園藝暨景觀學系 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用CC「姓名標示－非商業性－相同方式分享」臺灣3.0版授權釋出】

2 Naming and Classifying Plants 植物的命名與分類
1.人類為了便於溝通超過50萬種以上的植物種類，需要發展植物命名與分類的方法。 2.植物名稱的發展起源於4000多年前，但首先將名稱記錄下來的是Theophrastus ( B.C.). 3.植物名稱一開始起於其用途、生長習性或可見特徵。例：馬利筋milk-weed ，因其汁液為乳汁狀而命名。這樣的命名難處之一是通常此名稱只有當地區域性的使用。

3 馬利筋milk-weed (蓮生桂子花)

4 EARLY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (1) Theophrastus
Theophrastus（ B.C.), a student of Aristotle, is widely credited with the first significant attempt to provides an orderly classification of plants. Theophrastus published Historia Plantarum or Enquiry into Plants. He divided plants into four categories: trees, shrubs, half shrubs, and herbs. He also categorized all plants as either annuals, biennials, or perennials and listed several plant ''families" among the flowering plants. In fact his description of the parsley family (Apiaceae/Umbelliferae) categorized for the shape of its flower cluster, is still essentially the same family in today's modern classifications.

5 Theophrastus(塞奧弗拉士塔士) (泰奧弗拉斯多 ) (370-285 B.C.)
希臘植物學家，採用亞理斯多德（Aristotle）研究生物學的方法，描述百餘種植物，常被視為植物學之奠基者，猶如亞氏為動物學之奠基者。Theophrastus是亞氏給他的別號，意即神之語，乃因亞氏很欣賞其對話之故，他的真名為Tyrtamuso。 Theophrastus曾就讀於柏拉圖（Plato）的學院，為亞理斯多德的學生。他繼亞氏之後主持Lyceum學院，而且一反教農學的前例在該院講授植物學。 Theophrastus所著的植物探究（Enquiry into Plants）討論單子葉及雙子葉植物之形態學，並試圖給予分類。他以植物的構造或外型來做分類。他也分類了許多草本植物(herbs)、灌木(shrubs)、喬木(trees)。他記錄了一年生(annual)、二年生(biennial)及多年生植物(perennial)的習性，並記錄花朵部位可做為植物分類特徵上的不同。因此他被尊為植物學之父。 另一本書植物本源（Etiology of Plants）則關於植物生長發育之研究，並且做了若干功能上的推測。他闡明在研究植物某部位的發育時，並非僅止於該部位在觀察時的現狀，而是要探究該部位將來如何演變。Theophrastus雖不能稱為實驗家，然而他亦曾深入探討營養繁殖及種子發芽，觀察環境因素對植物生長發育的影響，並且研究植物病理學。 原載：郭華仁(譯) 1986 實驗植物學的歷史素描(一)。科學農業 34(9/10):

6 EARLY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (2) Linnaeus
Carl von Linne (Carolus Linnaeus, ) developed A binomial (or two-word) system for scientifically classifying plants according to their sexual systems or flower structures. He first published Genera Plantarum in 1737, a work in which he suggested the concept of classification of plants based on the number of sexual parts. Subsequently, in 1753, he published Species Plantarum, which established what is generally referred to as the "sexual" system. He described over 1300 plants (and a like number of animals as well), placing these plants in 23 "classes" of flowering plants and lumping nonflowering plants (mosses, algae, ferns, and fungi) into a 24th class.

7 卡爾·林奈 (Carl von Linné， Carolus Linnaeus )
林奈在烏普薩拉大學其間，發現花的花粉囊和雌蕊可以被作為植物分類的基礎。他將此發現寫成一篇短論文。這個發現為他提供了一個非常教授的職位。1732年烏普薩拉科學院資助他去瑞典北部的拉布蘭考察。到那個時候為止，歐洲人對拉布蘭還一無所知，在這4600英里的土地上，林奈發現100多種新種植物，1737年林奈將他對拉布蘭植物世界的考察寫成一本書發表，在這本書中，林奈首次發表了以植物生殖器官進行分類的方法。 1753年林奈發表《植物種誌》（Species Plantarum），採用雙名法，以拉丁文來為生物命名，其中第一個名字是屬的名字，第二個是種的名字，屬名為名詞，種名為形容詞，形容些物種的特性，或可加上發現者的名字，以紀念這位發現者，也有負責的意思。林奈用這種方法幫植物命名，後來他也用同樣的方法為動物命名，此種命名法也一直延用至今。

8 林奈的肖像

9 EARLY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS (3) common names
Plants have also been given horticultural names (cultivars) and nonscientific common names. Different “common” names for the same plant or several distinctly different species called by the same common name.(一種多名或多種同名) For example, in Minnesota, the state tree, Pinus resinosa (多脂松), is know as the Norway Pine (挪威松), whereas in other areas of the United States it is known as red pine (紅松). In another example, we see that Bailey lists six different species as "bluebell" or "blue-bells," (藍鈴花) but only two are even in the same family!

10 九重葛 中名：九重葛 英名：Bougainvillea、Paper flower 別名：三角梅、葉子花、南美紫茉莉、簕杜鵑、寶巾、 刺仔花 科名：紫茉莉科（Nyctaginaceae） 學名：Bougainvillea spp. 原產地：南美

11 COMMON AND BOTANICAL NAMES 普通名及植物學名
普通名(俗名，common names)因容易記憶、發音及使用而廣為人知。普通名常因植物特徵而演變得名。普通名只有在討論雙方皆確切知道討論的植物為何下才有價值。以茉莉花（jasmines）舉例來說，許多植物名稱中包含茉莉花一字，卻不一定彼此相似或有植物學上的相關性。以下為名為茉莉花者表列於下方，於普通名後為植物學名： 毛茉莉 Star jasmine (Jasminum gracillimum) 絡石 Star jasmine (Trachelospermum jasminoides) 捲花鐵線蓮Blue jasmine (Clematis crispa) 梔子花 Cape jasmine (Gardenia jasminoides) 馬茶花 Crape jasmine (Tabernaemontana divaricata) 夜香木 Night jasmine (Cestrum nocturnum) 夜花 Night jasmine (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis) 明顯的上述例子的普通名對普遍的書寫或詞彙溝通上有其限制，對於科學應用來說太繁雜及變異太大。

12 Trachelospermum jasminoides
Jasminum gracillimum 毛茉莉 Trachelospermum jasminoides 絡石 Clematis crispa 捲花鐵線蓮

13 Tabernaemontana divaricata
Gardenia jasminoides 梔子花 Tabernaemontana divaricata 馬茶花 13

14 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis
Cestrum nocturnum 夜香木 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis 夜花

15 BOTANICAL 植物學分類 CLASSIFICATION/TAXONOMY(1)
A taxonomist is a plant scientist who studies plant classification, or more specifically, plant categories or taxa (singular, taxon—hence the name taxonomy). Understandably, Linnaeus is generally accorded the title, “Father of Taxonomy.“(分類學之父) The theory of evolution, espoused in Charles Darwin‘s Origin of Species published in 1859, was an important step towards combining a phylogenetic(系統發生的) approach with natural classification and the artificial system developed by Linnaeus. A 20-volume natural plant classification system based on the work of August Eichler, was published by Adolph Engler, Karl Prantl, and others beginning in the late 19th century.

16 BOTANICAL 植物學分類 CLASSIFICATION/TAXONOMY(2)
It divides the plant kingdom into divisions, which are then divided into classes, orders, families, genera (singular genus), and species. Further division into several minor taxa may be followed for some plants. Plant taxonomy is a dynamic and continually changing field.(植物分類學持續進展中) Physiological, biochemical, cytological, ecological, genetic, and more recently biotechnological approaches provide information that enables taxonomist to more accurately identify plants than ever before. Chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques can help identify similar and dissimilar protein constituents of plants, thus enabling the taxonomist to "fingerprint" such plants.

17 Scientific classification 科學的分類
分類的科學系統將生物依外表特徵分類的單位為分類群taxa（單數為taxon，例：科、屬、種）。 分類的第一級為生物域（Domain）：原核生物域及真核生物域。真核生物域分為四個界（Kingdom）：原生生物、真菌、植物、動物。 植物界分為兩群：苔蘚植物（包含苔類及地錢）及維管束植物。維管束植物又分為兩亞群：種子植物及無種子植物。無種子植物包含蕨門。種子植物包含蘇鐵門、銀杏門、松柏門、顯花植物門（被子植物，進一步分為單子葉及雙子葉）。門之後的分類階級依序為綱、目、科、屬、種。

18 The Five Kingdoms

19 Plant Kingdom - Major Lineages

20 蘚苔植物 2.土馬騌 1.地錢

21 筆筒樹(右圖為其捲曲的幼葉) 蕨的羽狀複葉及 葉子背面的孢子囊堆

22 http://content. edu. tw/junior/bio/tc_wc/textbook/ch10/text-ch10-all

23 http://content. edu. tw/junior/bio/tc_wc/textbook/ch10/text-ch10-all

24 常見的裸子植物 1.臺灣二葉松 2.柳杉 3.紅檜 4.蘇鐵

25 不同形態的花 3.朱槿 2.百香果 1.向日葵 4.蝴蝶蘭

26 雙子葉植物 1.杜鵑 2.絲瓜 水生植物 1.荷 2.睡蓮

27 單子葉植物 1.百合 2.稻 3.竹

28 http://content. edu. tw/junior/bio/tc_wc/textbook/ch10/text-ch10-all

29 Linnaean taxonomic hierarchy

30 Plant nomenclature 植物命名法
Botanical names, in addition to having been derived from one language (Latin), are governed by specific rules that are internationally accepted and are published in the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.(國際植物命名法規) Students need to become familiar with this hierarchical naming system, because it is universal, and because it will enable them to more effectively work with, sell, purchase, or communicate about horticultural plants.

31 PLANT IDENTIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE 植物識別及命名法
野生或自然形成的植物以國際植物命名法規(International Code of Botanical Nomenclature)為標準，栽培品種植物命名規則相同，以國際栽培品種植物命名法規(International Code of Nomenclature Cultivated Plants)為標準。基本規則是—— 屬名通常大寫，當打字或手寫時加底線，印刷時用斜體字。因此，馬鈴薯的屬名Solanum ，種名 tuberosum同樣加底線或斜體。種名通常以小寫為開頭，但當為人名時則為大寫。許多原生種種名通常是以大寫開頭，例Pinus Jeffreyi Grev. and Balf.或Pinus jeffreyi Grev. and Balf.均可。

32 PLANT IDENTIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE 植物識別及命名法
每個植物都有兩個字組成的名字，為雙名法(binomial)，以拉丁文書寫。第一個名字指植物的屬名(genus)，第二個為種名(species)。 完整的林奈命名法，包含了第三個部分—命名者(authority)或命名的科學家縮寫。 如馬鈴薯Solanum tuberosum L.，"L." 指林奈氏（Linnaeus），此例常見因林奈命名了許多的植物，書或期刊中常省略，但對分類其有決定性的重要性，因不同的科學家會給同一種植物不同的學名。此種案例，學名以首先命名者為優先。 Chrysanthemum X morifoliurn Ramat.= Dendranthema X grandiflorum Kitam. 例如孤挺花，原為Amaryllis屬，後來改屬於Hippeastrum屬，但習慣上對孤挺花仍用Amaryllis為一般英文名稱。

33 PLANT IDENTIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE 植物識別及命名法
當同屬植物同列一起時，第一個植物會列出完整屬名，之後的植物屬名部分則只列第一個字母大寫當縮寫。如杏、歐洲李、桃都是桃李屬植物，學名列法則為Prunus armeniaca、 P. domestica 和 P. persica，但當不同植物屬名縮寫相同易於混淆時則不如此使用。 種名的單複數拼法是一樣。有時只知植物屬名卻不知確切種名，因其難以辨認，通常在屬名後加小寫 "sp." （單種）或"spp." （多個種）表示。例：桃李屬Prunus spp. 通常" spp."指同屬多種植物，而"sp."則指特定無法確認種名的植物，此兩者不加底線或用斜體。

34 番椒 (Capsicum annuum L. ) 域：真核域(Eukarya) 界：植物界(Plantae)
門：被子植物門(Magnoliophyta) 綱：雙子葉植物綱(Magnoliopsida) 目：茄目(Solanales) 科：茄科(Solanaceae) 屬：番椒屬 (Capsicum) 種：番椒(C. annuum)

35 番椒 (Capsicum annuum L. ) 域：真核域(Eukarya) 界：植物界(Embryonta)
門：維管植物門(Tracheophyta) 綱：被子植物綱(Angiospermae) 亞綱：雙子葉植物亞鋼(Dicotyledoneae) 目：花蔥目 (Polemoniales) 科：茄科(Solanaceae) 屬：番椒屬(Capsicum) 種：番椒(C. annuum) Preece & Read The Biology of Horticulture

36 Major taxa used for horticultural plants(1)
Kingdom(界): Plant Kingdom植物界 (Embryonta, or "Land Plants") Division(門): Tracheophyta維管植物門, higher plants with vascular or treacheary system. (Although edible mushrooms are considered a horticultural commodity, they are members of the Division Thallophyta低等植物門.) The division is equivalent to the Phylum of animal classification systems. Class(綱): Filicinae蕨綱 (Ferns), 裸子植物綱Gymnospermae (ginkgoes, cycads, taxads, conifers), and被子植物綱Angiospermae (the flowering plants). Subclass(亞綱): Subclasses in the Angiospermae (see also Table 2-1, Figure 2-1): ＊ Dicotyledoneae (or dicots):雙子葉植物亞鋼 ＊ Monocotyledoneae (or monocots):單子葉植物亞鋼

37 Monocots and Dicots - Grasses - Lilies - Orchids - Palms
- Oaks - Bean - Spinach - Rose Monocots and dictots

38 Preece & Read.2005. The Biology of Horticulture

39 Major taxa used for horticultural plants(2)
Subclass (亞綱): Subclasses in the Angiospermae: ＊ Dicotyledoneae (or dicots雙子葉): Two cotyledons in their seeds; net leaf venation; flower parts in ours, fives, or multiples thereof. ＊ Monocotyledoneae (or monocots單子葉): One cotyledon in their seeds; parallel leaf venation; flower parts in threes or multiples thereof. Order (目): ＊雙子葉： Polemoniales花蔥目, which has the families Solanaceae (nightshade family) and Convolvulaceae (morning glory family); Sirophulariales has the family Oleaceae (olive family). ＊單子葉： Liliales (lilies), Palmales (palms), Graminales (grasses). Family (科): Solanaceae茄科.

40 Minor taxa used for horticultural plants(1)
Family(科): Solanaceae茄科. Family names generally end in aceae and often are named for a "type genus," (e.g., Solanum for Solanaceae). The International Code directs that all family names should be based on a type genus, but the older descriptive family names continue to be commonly used. Examples: Poaceae is the proper family name for Gramineae, the grass family; Asteraceae for Compositae, the composite or sunflower family; and Apiaceae for Umbelliferae, the parsley family. Genus(屬): Capsicum番椒屬(always capitalized) Specific epithet(種): annuum番椒(normally not capitalized, but may be if it is a proper name, such as Lonicera Albertii).

41 Family 科 (1) 一群相近的屬為同科，可以基於一些相同的植物構造或化學上特徵來歸類，例如馬利筋為蘿藦科植物，除了花朵構造外，乳汁為此科特點。茄科包含了茄屬（馬鈴薯）、番茄屬（番茄）、辣椒屬（辣椒）、煙草屬（煙草）、曼陀羅屬（顛茄）、矮牽牛屬…等。茄科包含約90個屬，兩百多個種，大部分原生於熱帶。此科植物皆有相似的花朵構造(圖3-4)。 科名第一個字母為大寫且有時加底線或用斜體，也可完全用大寫字母書寫。 大部分科名以屬名加-aceae字尾，例如：茄科SOLANACEAE、 薔薇科ROSACEAE、石蒜科AMARYLLIDACEAE、百合科LILIACEAE 、木蘭科MAGNOLIACEAE。

42 馬鈴薯花（上兩項）及番茄花（下兩項）形狀類似。因均為茄科植物。
McMahon et al., Hartmann’s Plant Science 3rd ed., 573pp. (4th ed. 2007, 624pp.) Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA.

43 然而有八個科不在此規則內，為求一致性給予其新的科名
Family 科 (2) 然而有八個科不在此規則內，為求一致性給予其新的科名 菊科ASTERACEAE (COMPOSITAE) 十字花科BRASSICACEAE (CRUCIFERAE) 禾本科POACEAE (GRAMINAE) 藤黃科CLUSIACEAE (GUTTIFEREAE) 薄荷科LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE) 豆科FABACEAE (LEGUMINOSAE) 棕櫚科ARECACEAE (PALMAE) 繖形科APIACEAE (UMBELLIFERAE)

44 林奈用取自古代神話中的名字，如溺死後化成水仙的美少年Narcissus (水仙屬)

45 金光閃閃－黃金菊 黃金菊的學名為Rudbeckia hirta，英名為black-eyed Susan、gloriosa daisy、yellow oxeye daisy，別名黑心菊、金光菊等。是菊科草本植物，原產於北美洲，在夏季高溫乾燥的環境下生育旺盛。 黃金菊的種類很多，光在北美就大約有三十多種的野生種，因此一年生、二年生、多年生的品種都有，花也有單瓣、重瓣之分，花色以黃色為主，有些在花心外有一輪橙色或紅色，花心如圓扣以黑褐色為主，但也有綠心品種，植株的高度從二十五公分的矮性種到一公尺的高性種都有，算是夏季花卉中的大家族..... 林奈為彰顯科學家，以其植物學教授Rudbeck，取名Rudbeckia (金光菊屬)。

46 Minor taxa used for horticultural plants(2)
The genus and specific epithet together are referred to as the species of a plant, or the binomial or scientific name; Capsicum annuum, for example, is the species of the garden pepper. follows the specific epithet such as Capsicum annuum L., Cypripedium reginae Walt., and Prunus persica (L.) Batsch. This name is referred to as the authority(命名者), the taxonomist responsible for naming this plant by the specific binomial; in these examples L. stands for Linnaeus who named the garden pepper; Walt. is Thomas Walter, who named the showy ladyslipper orchid, and Batsch renamed peach by its present name after Linnaeus had given it an incorrect name. The genus and specific epithet are properly italicized斜體 in printing (or underlined畫底線 in writing).

47 Minor taxa used for horticultural plants(3)
Variety (品種、變種): Subclassification of the traditional species (e.g., Scilla sibirica var. alba). Forma (型): A sub-division of a species not differing sufficiently to be called a variety, often only by a slight genetic variation giving rise to a different appearance or "form." Cultivar (栽培品種): A group of plants within a species with one or more common characteristics. The initial letter is normally capitalized. The word is correctly enclosed in single quotes, as in 'Tropic' tomato; or preceded by cv., as in tomato, cv. Tropic; never both.

48 Botanical variety 植物學上的品種(變種)
野外的植物群有時和原先描述的一般“種”明顯不同， 因此植物學上變種的分類會置於種的分類之下。 例如黃楊Buxus microphylla Sieb. and Zucc. var. japonica Rehd. and Wils.，其原生於日本。其中“var.” 代表拉丁文varietas，為變種之意。另一個起源於韓國 的變種Buxus microphylla var. koreana Nakai.。 這些植物學變種間差異，足以給予獨特的命名或命名 者來做分辨。在此例中，japonica 或 koreana 加以底 線或用斜體，當變種名為姓氏表示，姓氏開頭大小寫 則隨編者喜好。但目前的趨勢是不用大寫。 Variety (var.)之下還可分為form (f.) 。例如黃百香果 Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa

49 Cultivar 栽培品種 栽培品種（cultivars ）為cultivated variety的簡稱。
栽培品種名第一個字母大寫，但不加底線或用斜體。栽培品種名接著種名後，可以用單引號將栽培品種名括起，但用了“cv.”在學名中，就不能同時在用此方法表示栽培品種名。例如Ilex cornuta cv. Burfordii或Ilex cornuta ‘Burfordii’ 栽培品種縮寫為“cv.”，“cvs.”為複數。栽培品種也許是花色因突變由白變紅色，如康乃馨; 也可能是脊刺比一般的冬青科植物枸骨(Ilex cornuta Lindl. and Paxt.)相比少者，如Ilex cornuta cv. Burfordii。

50 Ilex cornuta & I. cornuta cv. Burfordii

51 Related Terms used for horticultural plants(1)
Hybrid plants (雜交植物): Names of hybrid plants should be preceded by the capital letter X. A hybrid genus example is X Fatshedera, a hybrid between the genera Fatsia and Hedera, and hybrid species examples are Pelargonium X hortorum and Petunia X hybrida. The capital X should not be pronounced as "ex," but rather stated as "the hybrid genus" or "the hybrid species." Cultigen (栽培種): This taxon is used to describe a plant or group of plants that is presumed to have originated in domestication with no clearly evident native form(已用作栽培但來源不詳之植物). Examples are Brussels sprouts, cabbage, and corn (maize).

52 Cultivar 栽培品種 許多一年生花卉、蔬菜、穀類、飼料作物皆以種子繁殖，多用F1雜交系。例如雜交庭園矮牽牛Petunia X hybrida Hort. Vilm.-Andr.，育種者培育出新品系植株而給予栽培品種名‘Fire Chief ’ 或‘Pink Cascade’，用相同親代年年育出相同F1子代。 果樹、葡萄、木本觀賞植物的栽培品種，則用營養繁殖保持原始特性。 栽培品種有兩類，營養繁殖系及實生系。營養器官繁殖為營養系(clones)，種子繁殖為實生系(lines)。

53 ‘Fire Chief ’ 和 ‘Pink Cascade’

54 Related Terms used for horticultural plants(2)
Line (實生系): A sexually reproduced cultivar. 'New Yorker' tomato is an example of a pure or inbred line that is maintained by allowing it to self-pollinate naturally and avoiding cross-pollination. 'Celebrity' tomato is a hybrid cultivar produced by plant breeders systematically crossing a select pollen parent with a specific seed parent. The parents of hybrid cultivars such as 'Celebrity' tomato are usually inbred lines. Clone (營養系): A population of plants derived asexually from one original individual (see Chapter 14).

55 Plant keys植物檢索表(1) An analytical key is a written diagnostic device designed to enable the student to identify a particular plant (鑑別特定植物) by elimination of characters not present in the plant and ultimately to arrive at the name of the only plant that can be correct. The most common type is called a dichotomous key.(植物檢索表大多以二歧分類的方式進行分類 )

56 定距式（級次式）檢索表︰ 將每一對互相區別的特徵分開編排在一定的距離處， 標以相同的項號，每低一項號退后一字。如︰
定距式（級次式）檢索表︰ 將每一對互相區別的特徵分開編排在一定的距離處， 標以相同的項號，每低一項號退后一字。如︰ 　　1．植物體構造簡單，無根、莖、葉的分化，無胚。（低等植物） 　　 2．植物體不為藻類和菌類所組成的共生體。 　　 3．植物體內含葉綠素或其它光合色素，自養生活模式…………………藻類植物 　　 3．植物體內無葉綠素或其它光合色素，寄生或腐生……………………菌類植物 　　 2．植物體為藻類和菌類所組成的共生體………………………………..地衣類植物 　　1．植物體構造複雜，有根、莖、葉的分化，有胚。（高等植物） 　　 ．植物體有莖和葉及假根……………………………………………..苔蘚植物門 　　 ．植物體有莖、葉和根。 　　 ．植物以孢子繁殖……………………………………………………蕨類植物門 　　 ．植物以種子繁殖……………………………………………………種子植物門

57 平行式檢索表︰ 將每一對互相區的特徵編以同樣的項號，並緊接並列， 項號雖變但不退格，項未注明應查的下一項號或查到的分類等級。如︰
平行式檢索表︰ 將每一對互相區的特徵編以同樣的項號，並緊接並列， 項號雖變但不退格，項未注明應查的下一項號或查到的分類等級。如︰ 　　1．植物體構造簡單，無根、莖、葉的分化，無胚（低等植物）…………………2 　　1．植物體構造複雜，有根、莖、葉的分化，有胚（高等植物）…………………4 　　2．植物體為菌類和藻類所組成的共生體…………………………………地衣類植物 　　2．植物體不為菌類和藻類所組成的共生體…………………………………………3 　　3．植物體內含有葉綠素或其它光合色素，自養生活模式…………………藻類植物 　　3．植物體內不含葉綠素或其它光合色素，營寄生或腐生生活……………菌類植物 　　4．植物體有莖、葉和假根…………………………………………………苔蘚植物門 　　4．植物體有根、莖和葉………………………………………………………………5 　　5．植物以孢子繁殖…………………………………………………………蕨類植物門 　　5．植物以種子繁殖…………………………………………………………種子植物門

58 Plant keys植物檢索表(2) A. Flowers with no stalks and arranged along a central axis, individual flower parts not showy. B. Plant herbaceous, flowers in one compact group per plant: Araceae (天南星科) BB. Plant woody, flowers in one to several compact groups: Arecaceae (Palmae) (棕梠科) AA. Flowers attached by short stalks, to a central axis, flower parts showy. C. Ovary inferior, stamens three: Iridaceae (鳶尾科) CC. Ovary superior, stamens six: Liliaceae (百合科)

59 HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION 園藝分類法
Most of these approaches are less scientific and systematic (較不科學、較無系統) than botanical classification, but they are often useful because they rely on practical criteria such as morphological features (form, growth habit), environmental adaptation, growth pattern, and usage.

60 1.1 Morphological features (form)
Herbaceous (succulents) (草本植物): Nonwoody plants and they are usually short-lived; Woody plants (木本植物): have more dense, sturdy tissues and tend to be long-lived.

61 1.2 Morphological features (Supporting types)
Vines (草本藤蔓植物): herbaceous plants that climb or twine around a vertical support. Lianas (木本藤蔓植物): woody climbing plants. Herbs (草本植物): self-supporting herbaceous plants. Trees or Shrubs (喬木或灌木): woody plants that require no supplemental support.

62 爬牆虎 牽牛花 薜荔 常春藤 62

63 蒜香藤 九重葛(三角梅、葉子花) 炮仗花 珊瑚藤

64 矮牽牛 四季秋海棠 矮牽牛花是喇叭形，跟牽牛 秋海棠分成觀花和觀葉兩大種類。 四季秋海棠屬觀花類，葉片有正常綠色和紅銅色。
茄科 矮牽牛花是喇叭形，跟牽牛 花很像，花色眾多，有純白、 粉紅、深紅、深紫等花色，亦 有雙色的品種。花期為冬季 到隔年春末，是臺灣最常用來 美化花壇的花卉之一。 歐洲矮牽牛 四季秋海棠 秋海棠科 鐵十字秋海棠 主要是觀葉用 秋海棠分成觀花和觀葉兩大種類。 四季秋海棠屬觀花類，葉片有正常綠色和紅銅色。 花色有紅、桃、白、複色等。 矮牽牛

65 雞冠花 千日紅 雞冠花花序形態似雞冠，下部 密生小花；具有花序顏色鮮豔 不易褪色、花序形狀能夠維持 長時間不變形、花序形態多變等特色。
莧科 雞冠花 雞冠花花序形態似雞冠，下部 密生小花；具有花序顏色鮮豔 不易褪色、花序形狀能夠維持 長時間不變形、花序形態多變等特色。 頭狀雞冠花 羽狀雞冠花 俗稱圓仔花，球狀花朵，是由 幾十到幾百朵的小花組成，有 紅、白和淡橘等顏色。 (臺灣俚語有一句形容人不自量力或者缺乏自知之明的話說: “圓仔花不知醜”)

66 1.3 Morphological features (Growth habits)
Trees (喬木): have a single upright central stem and often are very tall. Shrubs (灌木): generally are low in stature and have several essentially upright stems, Deciduous (落葉植物): some plants lose all of their leaves for a portion of the year. Evergreens (常綠植物): plants that retain a portion of their leaves throughout the year.

67 福木 松樹 木棉

68 杜鵑花 仙丹花 朱槿

69 2. Environmental adaptation 依環境適應性分類
Tolerance to extremes of temperature, resistance to water deficits, and adaptation to varying light levels and soil characteristics.

70 2.1 Temperature adaptation (1) hardiness
Cold-hardy plants (耐寒植物): if they can survive low winter temperatures. Tender plants (不耐寒植物): if they are readily damaged by cold. In many cases roots are more easily damaged than the above-ground parts of plants. Cold hardiness is sometimes further divided into flower-bud hardiness, wood hardiness, and root hardiness.

71 Plant Hardiness Zones

72

73 2.1 Temperature adaptation (2) favorable temperatures
Warm season crops (暖季作物): sweet potato (甘藷Ipomoea batatas), muskmelon (甜瓜Cucumis melo var. reticulata), and lima bean (萊豆Phaseolus lunatus). Cool season crops (冷季作物): broccoli (青花菜Brassica oleracea var Italica), lettuce (萵苣Lactuca sativa), and peas (豌豆Pisum sativum) .

74 CLIMATIC AND RELATED CLASSIFICATIONS 氣候及分類
一些作物因在特定季節生長勢最佳而被分類~ 像暖季植物(warm-season plants)玉米、豆類、馬鈴薯、胡椒、西瓜、矮牽牛、萬壽菊、百日草和百慕達草等，於月均溫18℃-27℃下生長最佳。 而冷季作物(cool-season crops)花椰菜、甘藍菜、萵苣、豌豆、開花球根植物、金魚草、仙客萊、早熟禾屬草等，於月均溫15℃-18℃下生長最佳。 植物可以依照開花結果品質最好的季節來分類。許多蔬菜及花卉及品種可被區分為早生、中生及晚生種。

75 2.2 Water adaptation Aquatic plants (水生植物hydrophytes): plants adapted for growth in water or in very wet soils, such as water lilies (睡蓮Nymphaea spp.) and water cress (豆瓣菜Nasturtium officinale). Xerophytes (旱生植物): plants adapted to seasonal or persistent drought, such as cacti (仙人掌Opuntia spp.) and succulents such as certain members of the Crassulaceae (景天科). Mesophytes (中生植物): plants adapted to intermediate water requirements and tolerances. Most horticulturally important plants are mesophytes.

76 睡蓮 布袋蓮 蓮花 (荷花) 水蠟燭

77 景天科 石蓮花 仙人掌科 火龍果

78 2.3 Light adaptation sun plants (陽性植物) shade plants (陰性植物)
sun-shade plants (中性植物)

79 1.陽性植物類 玫瑰 爆竹紅 阿勃勒 石竹 九重葛 大波斯菊

80 2.陰性植物類 常春藤 腎蕨 竹芋 萬年青 觀音葉

81 3.陽陰性植物類(中性植物) 富貴竹 鵝掌藤 馬拉巴栗

82 2.4 Soil characteristics adaptation
Halophytes (耐鹽植物): plants adapted to soils high in salinity (salts). For example, members of the goosefoot family (藜科植物Chenopodiaceae) such as beet (甜菜Beta vulgaris), spinach (菠菜Spinacia oleracea), and saltbush (濱藜Atriplex spp.). Basophilic ("base-loving") plants (喜鹼植物): adapted to extremes of alkali soil pH. An example of a basophilic plant is coltsfoot (款冬Tussilago farfara). Acidophilic ("acid-loving") plants (喜酸植物): adapted to extremes of acid soil pH. Examples of the acidophilic type abound in the Ericaceae, including such horticulturally important species as blueberry (藍莓) and cranberry (蔓越莓) (Vaccinium spp.) and rhododendron (石楠) and azalea (杜鵑花) (Rhododendron spp.).

83 3.Classification by growth pattern依生長型式分類
Three life cycle patterns exist among higher plants and plants exhibiting these patterns are categorized as annuals, biennials, and perennials.

84 3.1 Classification by growth pattern --Annuals
Annuals (一年生植物annual plants) are ones that complete its life cycle in one growing season; that is, the seed germinates, vegetative and reproductive growth follow, and then the plant dies. Examples include corn (玉米Zea mays) and spinach (菠菜Spinacia oleracea). In cold climates, some perennials, such as tomato (番茄), geranium (天竺葵), and petunia (矮牽牛) are treated as annuals even though they are true perennials (有些多年生植物被視為一年生), because they are killed by cold temperatures at the end of the growing season.

85 CLIMATIC AND RELATED CLASSIFICATIONS 氣候及分類
一些一年生植物(annuals)在生長與開花方面，因對氣候的特殊需求而被區分為越冬一年生或越夏一年生植物。 越冬一年生植物(winter annuals)於秋天種植且在接續到來的春天開花，亦有人視為二年生植物。 越夏一年生植物(summer annuals)於春天種植且在夏天及秋天開花。

86 3.2 Classification by growth pattern --Biennials(1)
Biennials (二年生植物biennial plants) require all or parts of two growing seasons to complete their life cycles. They grow vegetatively the first growing season and then flower and die the second growing season. This flowering usually occurs in response to the cold temperatures experienced by the plant during the winter period. Examples of biennials include several important horticultural crops: carrot, beet, onion (洋蔥Allium cepa), honesty (正直花Lunaria annua), canterbury bells (風鈴草Campanula medium), and foxglove (毛地黃Digitalis purpurea) (Figure 2-2).

87 Redish Carrot Red Beet

88 3.2 Classification by growth pattern --Biennials(2)
Some biennials are referred to as winter annuals. (有些二年生植物被視為越冬一年生), Their seeds commonly germinate in the fall and the plants grow vegetatively and overwinter in a nongrowing state, then flower in the spring or early summer. Examples include winter grains and several common temperate zone weeds, such as yellow rocket (山芥菜Barbarea vulgaris) and shepherd's purse (薺菜Capsella bursapastoris).

89 3.3 Classification by growth pattern --Perennials
Perennials (多年生植物perennial plants) live for more than two growing seasons (often for many years) and may flower as early as the first growing season. Many species fall into this category, including all trees and shrubs (喬木和灌木均為多年生植物). In bramble fruit species (懸鉤子Rubus spp.), although the plant is perennial, the above-ground portions are functionally biennial.

90 4. Classification by usage 依用途分類
Horticultural plants readily fall into two broad groups, those that are (1) edible (可食性) and important for their food value and those that are important for their (2) amenity uses (閒適性), (i.e., plants that are grown for their ornamental and aesthetic values).

91 4.1 Edible horticultural plants(1)
Edible plants are usually divided into vegetables and fruits.(可食性植物通常分為蔬菜和水果兩大類) Vegetables are plants or plant parts consumed as part of the main portion of the meal, but fruits are most often eaten as a dessert.(蔬菜和水果的區別) Vegetables are usually annual or biennial herbs. Exceptions include Asparagus officinalis (蘆筍) and globe artichoke, 朝鮮薊Cynara scolymus; these plants are perennials, but their above ground portions are still primarily herbaceous. Most vegetables are eaten raw or cooked simply and the parts eaten may be vegetative, such as leaves (spinach, lettuce), stems (asparagus), and roots (carrot), or reproductive tissues, such as flower parts (broccoli), fruits (tomatoes), and seeds (peas).(依食用部位分類)

92 蔬菜依其 可食用部位來分群~ 有些以果實及種子為食用部位，如番茄、青椒、四季豆、豌豆及玉米。
有些以莖及葉為食用部位，例如蘆筍、芹菜、菠菜、萵苣及甘藍。 其餘以地下部為食用部位，如紅蘿蔔、甜菜、蕪菁和馬鈴薯。

93 4.1 Edible horticultural plants(2)
Tree fruits(樹果類): fruits are those harvested from trees and include apples, pears, mangoes, and most citrus fruits. Small fruits(小果類): fruits born on shrubby or herbaceous plants are termed small fruits and include strawberries, currants (Ribes spp.), grapes (Vitis spp.), blueberries, and the brambles (Rubus spp., raspberry, blackberry, cloudberry). Nuts(堅果類): Pecans (Carya illinoensis), walnuts (Juglans spp.), almonds (Prunus dulcis), and pistachio (Pistacia vera) are examples of a special category of fruits called nuts. They typically have a hard fruit wall or shell enclosing the edible portion or kernel. Specifics of fruit structures and categories are covered in more detail in Chapter 3.

94

95

96 4.2 Amenity plants(閒適植物) This category includes all plants grown to provide aesthetic enhancement, especially visual enhancement, to our lives. These include such categories as cut flowers, pot crops, bedding plants, nursery crops, and turfgrasses. All may be grown as part of a landscape planting, visually increasing the beauty of one's surroundings.

97 4.2(1) Cut flowers(切花) Cut flowers may be made into corsages or boutonnieres and worn for ornament, fabricated into special displays, or simply placed in a vase on the dinner table.

98

99 4.2(2) Pot crops(盆栽植物/盆花) Pot crops include both flowering types such as chrysanthemums and cyclamen and foliage plants(觀葉植物), those plants grown for the special features the foliage provides for the indoors ("houseplants").

100

101 4.2(3) Bedding plants(花壇植物)
Bedding plants are flowering plants grown to be transplanted while young into flower "beds," primarily to augment and add color to a landscape design.

102

103 4.2(4) Nursery crops(苗圃作物)
Nursery crops include those trees and shrubs produced in special locations, or nurseries, prior to placing them in a landscape setting. Both deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs are grown by commercial nurseries; they may also grow ground covers, other herbaceous perennials, and bedding plants.

104

105 4.2(5) Turfgrasses(草坪植物) Turfgrasses or lawn grasses, or just turf, are essential components in most temperate zone landscapes, and useful in many warmer areas. Turfgrasses are also critical components of most sports turfs, including golf courses, football pitches, and baseball fields.

106

107 Multiple uses Plants often have multiple uses, especially in the landscape. Plants such as blueberries藍莓 and crabapples海棠may be prized in the spring for the beauty and fragrance of their flowers, valued later in the year for their fruits harvested for food, and again enjoyed for their autumnal colors in the fall and winter. Likewise a grape葡萄 arbor may be both ornamental and yield delicious fruits for direct consumption or production of beverages such as wine.

108 4.2(6) Specialty products: beverages(飲料作物)
Many other plants are grown for specialty products such as beverages (coffee咖啡, Coffea spp.; tea茶, Camellia sinensis), medicinals, herbs, and spices.

109 4.2(6) Specialty products: medicinals(藥用植物)
Medicinals are herbaceous or woody plants that yield substances of pharmaceutical, or medicinal, value. Examples include: Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), a plant that possessing medicinal properties for humans; however it is poisonous to cattle; foxglove毛地黃, a herbaceous perennial (Digitalis purpurea and D. lanata are sources of an important cardiac drug); and quinine. The valuable anti-malarial alkaloid known as quinine is extracted from the bark of several species of the genus Cinchona金雞納樹. These and other potential uses of plants for medical purposes underscore the importance of learning more about plant diversity; it is imperative that this diversity be preserved(保存變異是必要的), for the next cure for cancer or other life-threatening disease may be resident in a plant that has not yet been discovered!

110 Cinchona Tree Foxglove

111 4.2(6) Specialty products: herbs(香草), and spices(香料植物)
Herbs for flavoring are usually made from fresh or dried vegetative parts of herbaceous plants (e.g., sage鼠尾草, Salvia officinalis; thyme百里香, Thymus spp.) Whereas spices are generally dried fruits or parts of tree species (often tropical in origin, such as pepper胡椒, Piper nigrum, and cinnamon肉桂, Cinnamomum zelanicum).

112 Salvia officinalis Cinnamomum zelanicum

113 New uses The horticulturist is constantly finding new uses for plants, so horticultural classification systems are unlikely to remain static.(園藝分類不太可能維持不變) Thus it behooves(有必要) the student to continue to follow these changes and integrate them into their knowledge of both botanical and horticultural systems of classification.

114 多采多姿的植栽配置(荷蘭庫根霍夫花園) 簡報完畢 敬請指教

115 版權聲明 3 5 7 8 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Wikimedia commons / Derek Ramsey
( ( 5 希臘植物學家，……因此他被尊為植物學之父。 郭華仁(譯) 1986 實驗植物學的歷史素描(一)。科學農業 34(9/10): ，依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。 7 林奈在烏普薩拉大學其間，……此種命名法也一直延用至今。 Wikipedia ( 8 Wikimedia commons / Chapman, J. ( 瀏覽日期：2012/09/27。

116 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 8 ASU- SCHOOL OF Life Science / ASU Ask A Biologist ( 瀏覽日期：2012/09/27。 10 Wikimedia commons / Prenn ( ( 12 Wikimedia commons / John Lindley and Joseph Paxton ( Flickr / pizzodisevo, slowly cause brainstroke (

117 12 13 14 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / peganum
( 瀏覽日期：2012/09/27。 13 Wikimedia commons / Bernard Loison ( Wikimedia commons / Challiyan ( 14 Wikimedia commons / Archibald Tuttle ( Wikimedia commons / Cary Bass (

118 14 18 19 20 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Wikimedia commons / J.M.Garg
( 18 TutorVista.com ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65 條合理使用。 19 PENNSTATE Biology Basic Concepts and Biodiversity / DENISE WOODWARD ( 瀏覽日期：2013/06/20，依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用。 20 Flickr / judie35 ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr /棟樑‧Harry‧黃基峰‧Taiwan (

119 21 22 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / 石川 Shihchuan
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / hakkanin ( Flickr /潘立傑 LiChieh Pan ( 瀏覽日期：2013/05/29。 22 教育部數位教學資源入口網( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。

120 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 23 教育部數位教學資源入口網( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。 24 Flickr / pcbirdtw ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Wikipedia / Bouba ( 瀏覽日期：2013/05/29。 Flickr / Canicula_sky ( Flickr /潘立傑 LiChieh Pan (

121 25 26 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Wikipedia
( 瀏覽日期：2013/05/29。 Flickr / 澎湖小雲雀 ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Wikipedia / Lestat (Jan Mehlich) ( ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 26 Wikipedia / Tevatron (

122 26 27 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / yallen33
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / lesily2 ( Flickr / kaiyanwong223 27 Wikipedia / Relic38 ( Wikipedia / Amartyabag ( 瀏覽日期：2013/05/29。

123 27 28 29 34 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 34、35 Wikimedia commons / Michele
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 28 教育部數位學習入口網 ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65 條合理使用。 29 Wikipedia / Jon Sullivan ( 瀏覽日期：2013/05/29。 34 Wikipedia ( 34、35 Wikipedia / Aldipower (

124 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 35 P16. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read The Biology of Horticulture: An Introductory Textbook, 2nd Edition. John Wiley&Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。 37 UNM Biology Undergraduate Labs / Cara Lea Council-Garcia and The University of New Mexico. ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65 條合理使用。 38 P18. Preece, J. E., P. E. Read The Biology of Horticulture: 42 McMahon et al., Hartmann’s Plant Science 3rd ed., 573pp. (4th ed. 2007, 624pp.) Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA. 44 Wikipedia / 约翰·威廉姆·沃特豪斯 (1849–1917) ( 瀏覽日期：2012/9/27。

125 44 45 48 50 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Wikimedia commons / Meneerke bloem
( 45 Flickr / cmpryor 瀏覽日期：2012/9/27。 Wikimedia commons ( 瀏覽日期：2012/09/27。 48 Wikipedia / Fibonacci ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 50 Flickr / maggie_and_her_camera

126 50 53 62 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / maggie_and_her_camera
瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 53 HEIRLOOM SEEDS FOR 200 YEARS ─ COMSTOCK GARDEN SEEDS ( 瀏覽日期：2013/06/20，依據著作權法第 46、50、52、65 條合理使用。 Leptospermum / S.L. Prior ( 62 Wikimedia commons / Epibase ( Wikipedia / Ixitixel (

127 62 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / bangdoll@flickr
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / ting0308 ( Wikimedia commons / Kornelia und Hartmut Häfele ( 瀏覽日期：2012/9/27。 Wikimedia commons / Bastet78 ( Wikimedia commons / Roger prat (

128 62 63 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr /芝士曼煎
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / Vilseskogen ( 63 Flickr / Just_Jane Wikipedia / bildtankstelle.de ( Flickr / Laxia (

129 63 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / kaiyanwong223
瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / 石川 Shihchuan ( Flickr / 澎湖小雲雀 ( (

130 63 64 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / bell543
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / adar.que 64 Flickr / kaiyanwong223

131 64 65 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / kaiyanwong223
瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / lumei ( Wikimedia commons / Fanghong ( 65 Wikimedia commons / Prenn ( 瀏覽日期：2012/9/27。

132 65 67 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / osanpo
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / miau715 ( Wikimedia commons / Serenity ( 瀏覽日期：2012/9/27。 Wikimedia commons / Frank Vincentz ( 67 Wikimedia commons / JoJan (

133 67 68 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Wikimedia commons / Angelblue
( Wikipedia / E-190 ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/19。 68 國立臺灣大學 園藝暨景觀學系 張育森 教授 Wikimedia commons / Schubbay ( Wikimedia commons / KayEss (

134 71 72 76 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 United States National Arboretum
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65 條合理使用。 72 Mark P. Widrlechner, USDA-ARS North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station, Ames, Iowa ( 76 Flickr / FloraTang 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / gtknj ( Flickr / lesily2 (

135 76 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / Forest Visual Arts™
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Wikimedia commons / H. Zell ( 瀏覽日期：2012/9/27。 Wikimedia commons / Hans Hillewaert ( Flickr / flashguy ( Flickr / ting0308 (

136 77 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr /黃毛 :: YELLOW fotografie ::
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / -Tracy- ( Flickr / astromango2009 ( Flickr / Wunkai ( Flickr / (

137 77 79 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / kaiyanwong223
瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / AngeloSu ( 79 中央大學校園綠美化網 ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65 條合理使用。 Flickr / *嘟嘟嘟* ( Flickr / Dennis Wong (

138 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 79 Flickr / *嘟嘟嘟* ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / Dubwoman ( Flickr / nnice ( 80 Wikipedia / Derek Ramsey ( 花連縣花蓮市中原國民小學 ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65 條合理使用。

139 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 80 Wikipedia / Kurt Stüber ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 臺北市政府工務局公園路燈工程管理處( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65 條合理使用。 花博公園 / 臺北市政府 ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18，依據著作權法第46、52、65 條 81 Wikipedia / SeanMack ( Wikipedia / 陽炎 (

140 81 87 92 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Wikipedia / Ryan Kitko
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 87 Wikipedia / Jengod ( Wikipedia / Jonathunder ( Wikipedia / Quadell ( 92 Flickr / freddy (

141 92 94 95 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / ImageMD
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 94 Wikipedia / Bill Ebbesen ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/19。 Flickr / Auntie P ( 95 Wikipedia / Ananda ( Wikipedia / Joe Ravi (

142 95 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Wikipedia / Benutzer:burgkirsch
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/19。 Flickr / catrain™ 貓。果然如是 ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / thedailyenglishshow ( Wikipedia / Steve Hopson ( Wikipedia / Fir0002 (

143 95 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / Major in Blue
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / Live of pig and cat ( Flickr / kaiyanwong223 Flickr / pillowtlps Flickr / CoCreatr (

144 95 98 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / taichi16
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / dazsnow 大龙 ( 98 Flickr / ( Flickr / kaiyanwong223 Flickr /澎湖小雲雀 (

145 98 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / SimonQ錫濛譙
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr /澎湖小雲雀 ( Flickr / Jessie.yang ( Flickr / sheldon0531 ( Flickr / Kiwi He (

146 98 100 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / Kaba
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr /澎湖小雲雀 ( 100 Flickr /過眼雲煙，源罪。 ( Flickr / kaiyanwong223 Wikipedia / Ryan Kitko ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/19。

147 100 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / Yoshi Shih-Chieh Huang
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Wikipedia / Digigalos ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/19。 Wikipedia / WeFt ( Flickr / Jardin de Sarah 莎拉花園 ( Flickr / Solomon's Photography Blog (

148 100 101 102 104 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / CornGuo
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 101 Wikipedia / Colin Smith ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/19。 Flickr / john antoni 102 Flickr / Yi-Ning Wang ( 瀏覽日期：2013/06/20。 104 Flickr / Sanctu (

149 104 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / Peter L Barker
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 Flickr / skjdksfkssdflkfsld ( Flickr / peganum ( Flickr / Tracie Hall ( 瀏覽日期：2013/06/20。 Flickr / intheburg (

150 106 108 110 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 Flickr / Marc Liu
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18 Flickr / IslandZii♫ ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 108 Flickr / tonx ( Flickr / Kevin ( 瀏覽日期：2013/06/20。 110 Wikimedia commons / Forest & Kim Starr (

151 110 112 114 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者 / 來源 1-151 Wikimedia commons / Jensflorian
( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/19。 112 Wikipedia / Kurt Stüber ( 瀏覽日期：2013/05/30。 Flickr / Tianyake ( 瀏覽日期：2012/12/18。 114 Flickr / Toni Escuder ( 1-151 轉載自Microsoft Office 2010 PowerPoint 設計主題範本， 依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。