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early detection, warning, and loss prevention
Debris flows caused by failure of fill slopes: early detection, warning, and loss prevention Thomas K. Collins 填土滑坡破壞造成土石流:早期發現、警戒和預防損失 高志文 蔡雅如 2018/11/16
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Introduction Site-specific detection of incipient or incremental failure of fill slopes that are precursors to debris flows and taking action to prevent loss of life and infrastructure. Catastrophic debris flows can originate on natural slopes or constructed slopes (human-modified slopes). This paper focuses on debris-flow hazards and risks associated with fill failures at a site-specific level. Worldwide, the debris-flow hazards associated with fill slopes are increasing. 前言 This paper focuses on (1) site-specific detection of incipient or incremental failure of fill slopes that are precursors to debris flows and (2) taking action to prevent loss of life and infrastructure. 1.本文著重在(1)具體地點的初期監測,或填土滑坡的增量破壞是土石流發生的前兆。(2)採取必要措施以保障生命財產安全。 2.土石流災難可能源自於自然斜坡或人工斜坡。(土石流的來源可能來自於一個小區域,但造成災害的範圍卻是相當廣大。) 3.本文是在研究填補失穩的地方對於土石流災害和風險的影響程度。(在世界各地,填補失穩的地方和土石流災害的關連性越來越高。) 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Hazards and risks of debris flows initiated as fill-slope failures
In Southeast Asia where major roads are often constructed in very mountainous terrain, major problems involving slope failure can occur after the road has been opened to traffic. Within two to three years of construction the costs of dealing with such problems may, on occasion, exceed the original expense of building the road. In Nepal about 86% of the area is steep hills and mountainsides. In Japan and the west coast of North and South America, earthquakes as well as intense rain can trigger fill failures that result in debris flows and other types of landslides. 填土坡失(不)穩造成的泥石流風險和災害增加 1.東南亞地區,主要道路往往是建造在多山地區,在道路開始通車後,會面臨嚴重的邊坡失穩問題。經過2~3年,處理邊坡失穩問題所需額外的費用,有時會超過原來道路的建設費用。 2.在尼泊爾,約86%的面積是陡峭的山地。據Hapit和Tennyson(1991)的報告,填方坡失穩在尼泊爾時有發生,這是由於土地資源開發利用在逐年加劇,如作為農田、牧場和林地,以及基礎設施建設,如修建道路,但是沒有採取足夠的保護措施,加速了地表的侵蝕和溝壑的形成。 3.在日本和美國西海岸,地震和強降雨可以誘發導致產生泥石流和其它類型滑坡的填方坡失穩。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Nature of the hazard: Debris flows originating as fill-slope failures
Blue Ridge Parkway in North Carolina 因填土坡引發邊坡破壞(土石流)造成的自然災害 這張地形圖是位在美國北卡羅來納州,比斯卡國家森林公園,(紅線是土石流路徑,黑線是當地的山路),在2004年弗朗西斯颶風過後所拍攝,圖中可以看到兩條土石流的源頭都來自公路上邊坡失穩的地方。 1.北卡羅萊納州的藍脊高速公路:這是一條位於山頂的雙車道高速公路,在斜坡上的切割和填方非常普遍。2004年9月,颶風弗朗西斯和伊芳萬在北卡羅來納州引發了數以百計的滑坡,在藍脊公園路造成3處主要的泥石流災害。 2.不列顛哥倫比亞省的伐木道路:1997年5月31日,在大雨和融雪過後,在距不列顛哥倫比亞東南80km的Gowan Creek,發生了泥石流災害。泥石流發生在一處木材斬獲區的伐木道路上,約有100~200m3的碎屑物質,向山下搬運了約1500m。 3.河流交匯處的道路填方 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Nature of the hazard: Debris flows originating as fill-slope failures
Logging road in British Columbia 2.不列顛哥倫比亞省的伐木道路:1997年5月31日,大雨和融雪過後,在距不列顛哥倫比亞東南方80公里處的Gowan Creek,發生了土石流災害。土石流源頭位於一處伐木集材區的道路上,約有100~200立方公尺的碎屑物質。向山下搬運了約1500m。 左圖:填補路面不穩定的地方,造成高恩溪流發生土石流。不列顛哥倫比亞省,東南約80公里的彭伯頓。 右圖:土石流災害源頭發生在貯木場填補不穩的地方。位於英國哥倫比亞的溫哥華。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Nature of the hazard: Debris flows originating as fill-slope failures
Road fills at stream crossings 3.河流交匯處的道路填方 (圖8)河流流經填補不穩的地方,形成土石流源頭。注意壞掉的涵管被土石塞住。(美國加樂弗尼亞的克拉瑪斯國家森林公園) 除了在山坡上會進行道路填方外,在河流(常年性,間歇性的,短暫的)交匯處進行道路填方是造成泥石流災害的另一個起源。在地勢陡峭的地區,在河流交匯處進行道路填方時,最好是建造涵洞或其它構築物,使水和河沙流向下游地區。但是,在豪雨季節進行道路填方時,通常採取的是沒有泄洪道的非工程壩。有些涵洞不能容納豪雨逕流,特別是大量的泥沙或木質碎屑運移。豪雨期間的物質運移,會堵塞涵洞,將物質轉移到大壩上,這樣可能導致大壩失穩,從而使雨水和土質填方形成泥石流。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Assessment of debris-flow hazards
Studies of debris-flow hazards usually focus on debris flows originating on natural slopes. Many studies use past debris-flow events to identify the type of terrain most susceptible to debris. This paper focuses on site-specific detection of debris-flow hazards from incipient or incremental failure on actual rather than potential instability of fill slopes . 評估泥石流災害 (泥石流災害的評估) 1.在研究泥石流災害時,往往著重於源自自然斜坡上的泥石流。許多研究都是利用過去的泥石流事件,來確定最易發生泥石流的地貌類型 2.本文著重於對特定地區的泥石流災害進行監測,這樣可以提供較為詳細的訊息。同時著重於對實際的、而非潛在的不穩定元素進行分析。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Detectable vs nondetectable warning signs
Debris flows originating from natural slopes and fill slopes can be divided into four categories based on single vs multiple (incremental) failure events and detectable vs nondetectable warning signs (e.g., tension cracks and scarps). (1) Natural slope—single-failure event (2) Natural slope—multiple-failure event (3) Fill slope—single failure event (4) Fill slope—multiple failure events 填方坡失穩的警告跡象(徵兆) 根據單個與多個填方失穩事件,以及一些警告跡象(徵兆)(如張裂縫和形成陡坡),可以將源自天然斜坡和填方斜坡上的泥石流分為4種類型︰ 1.天然斜坡-單個失穩事件︰突發性的斜坡失穩會產生泥石流,在泥石流事件發生之前,在斜坡上檢測不出任何預警信號; 2.天然斜坡-多個失穩事件(隨時間變化表現為逐級失穩),會導致產生泥石流災害的斜坡失穩。在泥石流事件發生之前,在斜坡上可以檢測到預警信號; 3.填方坡-單個失穩事件︰突發性的填方坡失穩會產生泥石流。在泥石流事件發生之前,在填方坡上檢測不出任何預警信號; 4.填方坡-多個失穩事件(隨時間變化表現為逐級失穩),會導致產生泥石流災害的斜坡失穩。在泥石流事件發生之前,在填方坡上可以檢測到預警信號。 本文主要研究以下現象︰填方坡最初的或逐級失穩,在泥石流事件發生之前,可以按日、月或年監測到預警信號。當填方坡失穩誘發了泥石流時,必須進行災後重建工作,如道路維修。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Early detection of fill instability and incremental failure I
When a road-fill slope collapses completely and moves down slope as a debris flow, the upper edge of the failure forms an arcshaped main scarp. The initiation of a fill failure may first appear as a crack or series of discontinuous cracks that outlines an arc-shaped area of fill . Over time, tiny scarps may develop, indicating increasing instability of the fill. Occasionally, as tension cracks or scarps expand, an elongate depression (graben) in the road bed or fill surface may develop. 監測填方坡的不穩定性 1當一個道路填方坡完全坍塌,以泥石流的模式向下坡運移時,沿失穩的上部邊界會形成一個陡崖。(圖4) 2填方坡失穩時,最初可能表現為一個或一系列不連續的弧形裂縫。(Fig. 9). 3隨著時間推移,會發展成小的陡崖(幾厘米),說明填方坡的不穩定性在增加。(Fig. 10). 4某些時候,當張裂縫或小陡崖擴大時,會發展為地塹。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Early detection of fill instability and incremental failure II
The initial cracks and tiny scarps are easy to detect on paved roads; when maintenance crews apply crack sealant or asphalt patches, the evidence of these initial instabilities is preserved in the pavement and easily recognizable. In some cases, the incremental failure of the fill may accelerate and result in one of more large slumps that require road closure until the fill is repaired. 監測填方坡的不穩定性 1.在鋪砌過的道路上,很容易監測到最初形成的裂縫和小陡崖,當養護工人用裂縫密封劑或瀝青進行道路維修時,這些最初的不穩定性證據會保留在道路上,很容易識別出來。(fig.17.12) 2.在某些情況下,填方坡的逐級失穩會加速發展,並且會造成更大的滑動(幾厘米到幾米),需要封閉道路,直到填方坡被完全修復。(fig13.14)”左圖”在道路填補的地方發生崩塌。注意有個人站在崩塌後的那塊道路上。(美國北卡羅來納州,藍色公路)”右”在道路填補的地方發生崩塌。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Warnings 1. Warning signs of unstable fill activity (a) Subsidence(沉降)
(b) Tension cracks(張裂縫) (c) Small scarps(小陡崖) (d) Slumps (large scarps) 滑動(大陡崖) (e) Graben (地塹) (f) Patched road pavement (修補路面) Identify characteristics of cracks and small scarps is very important, because ︰ They are a path for water to infiltrate the fill. They are evidence that the fill mass is detaching from the hillside or mountainside. They indicate a potential for more slippage. 預 警 對填方坡失穩進行早期監測,可以提供3種類型的預警︰ (一)不穩定填方坡活動的預警徵兆 填方坡失穩信號包括︰(a)沈降;(b)張裂縫;(c)小陡崖(小於幾厘米),客車可以透過,在道路修復前無需進行封路;(d)滑動(大陡崖),客車不可透過,需要封路以進行道路修復;(e)地塹;(f)修補過的路面(包括道路進行反覆修補的特徵)。需要指出的是,這些都是識別特定路段填方坡不穩定性的信號,是真實的,而非潛在的不穩定信號。識別裂縫和小陡崖非常重要,這是因為︰(1)它們是地表水向填方坡入滲的通道;(2)可以表明填土物質在山坡或山腰與山體脫離;(3)可以說明可能存在更多的滑動。在鋪築或未鋪築的路面上都可以發現警告標誌。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Warnings 2. Warning to owners and managers
The path or track of a debris flow initiated by a fill-slope failure can be estimated and mapped using similar techniques to estimate and map the path of a debris flow initiated as a natural slope failure. The findings serve as warnings of the consequences of potential debris flows associated with specific fills. The findings also provide the owners and managers a basis or justification to take action. 3. Warning to potentially affected people downslope from the unstable fill 預 警 (二)對業者和(或)管理者進行預警 2.1對特定填方坡的預警信號進行早期監測和分析,可以了解填方坡的不穩定性和逐級失穩,是否會造成完全坍塌及誘發泥石流災害,以及泥石流災害對山下的居民和基礎設施可能造成的影響。 可以採用對天然斜坡上泥石流運移路徑的評估和填圖類似的方法,對填方坡上發生的泥石流運移路徑進行評價和填圖, 2.2當災害和風險評價結果值得引起重視時,就可以將這些結果提供給企業所有人和(或)管理者,為企業所有人和管理者提供採取相應防災減災措施的依據。 (三)對可能受不穩定斜坡影響的人群進行預警 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Loss prevention Monitoring
Prioritized maintenance Prioritized repair Monitoring Warnings for emergency officials and the public Risk avoidance or reduction 優先維護、優先維修、監測、對應急部門和公眾進行預警、規避或減少風險 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Prioritized maintenance
When a fill shows cracks, scarps, and other evidence of instability, one cause of the instability may be related to maintenance. High-risk fills also can help change maintenance practices that adversely affect stability of fills. If this maintenance practice is used on hazardous, high-risk fills, it may increase the chance for a total fill failure and destructive debris flow. 優先維護 (1)當填方坡表現出裂縫、小陡崖,和其它不穩定性的信號時,就有可能涉及到維護工作。 (2)高風險填方坡的識別工作,也有助於改變有可能對填方坡不穩定性產生不利影響的維護習慣。 (3)如果在高風險性的填方坡上採用這種維護模式,會增加填方坡完全失穩和發生破壞性泥石流災害的風險。 (圖)因涵管被阻塞而造成兩個土石流災害(1)一個臨時壩阻塞了涵洞。(2)因溢流而導致另一個填補災害。 (圖)用瀝青修補路面的裂縫是增加災害的證據 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Prioritized repair I Various remediation techniques are available to repair or mitigate unstable fills 1. Stabilizing the fill using soil nails 2. Buttress and retaining walls 3. Reinforced earth 4. Deep patch road embankment 5. Improved surface and subsurface drainage 6. Replacement of corroded or broken pipe 7. Lightweight fill material 優先維修 對不穩定斜坡的維修有以下一些措施 1土釘對填方坡進行加固;2建支撐牆或擋土牆;3加筋土;4路堤(護坡)深層的修補;5改進填方坡的地表和地下排水;6更換填方坡中腐蝕和破損的管道;7採用重量輕的填方物質 (圖)失穩的邊坡在插入泥釘之後進行填補。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Prioritized repair II 8. Sag the vertical grade
9. Remove the fill from the slope and shift the horizontal grade into the cut-slope 10. Benching the lower part of fill into bedrock 11. Deep-rooted vegetation 12. In extreme cases, bridge over the fill failure 13. In extreme cases, major relocation of the road section with the fill failure 8.減小斜坡的坡度;9.去除斜坡上的填土;10.用基岩作為填方坡較低的部分;11.種植扎根深的植物;12.特殊情況下在失穩填方坡上修建橋樑或13.改變主要道路的位置等。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Monitoring Scenic overlook fills are larger fills than typical road fills and, thus, deserve careful hazard/risk analysis and monitoring when signs of fill distress are discovered. Postearthquake inspection and monitoring is another valuable tool because earthquakes can trigger new or renewed fill instabilities. 監 測 對於一些大的填方坡,需要進行較為詳細的災害(風險)分析和監測。 發生地震後進行監測也非常有必要,因為地震會誘發新的填方坡失穩。 (圖)在陡坡上出現草地裂縫和護欄分離的景觀。(美國北卡羅來納州)經過災害風險分析和監測,跡象顯示,長期進行填補 (圖)在泛美公路上有部份的填土斜坡破壞,發生在2001年的地震之後。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Warnings for emergency officials and the public
When routine inspection of an earth-fill dam or a mine-waste pile discovers signs of an incremental failure, local officials deliver an initial advisory to specific homeowners that their home is in the path of the potential flood or debris flow. When a high hazard road fill or residential fill is discovered, local officials can deliver an initial advisory to specific homeowners that their home is in the path of a known debris-flow hazard. 對應急部門和公眾進行預警 根據對填土壩或尾礦壩進行的常規監測,發現有逐級失穩信號時,當地政府就需要通知可能會受泥石流或洪澇災害影響的人群 當觀測到高風險的道路填方坡或住宅填方坡失穩時,當地政府也要對處於風險的人群進行預警。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Risk avoidance or reduction I
(a) Land-use planning and zoning Perhaps the greatest opportunity to prevent loss due to debris flows from fill slopes as well as natural slopes is risk avoidance or reduction through land-use planning and zoning. (b) Cooperation between jurisdictions Because debris flows caused by fill failures can initiate in one jurisdiction and create a path of destruction downslope across two or more jurisdictions, it is important to have communication and cooperation among the stakeholders. 避免或減少風險 (a)土地利用規劃和分區----防災最有效的辦法可能就是透過土地利用規劃和分區規避或減少風險 (b)司法管轄區之間的合作----由於填方坡造成的泥石流可能是開始於一個轄區(公共或私人用地),但其破壞路徑會涉及下坡的另一個或多個轄區,這樣加強不同轄區之間的聯繫就顯得非常重要。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Risk avoidance or reduction II
(c) Project development When a proposed project, is evaluated for landslide or slope-stability hazards, the focus is on (1) the stability of proposed cuts and fills and (2) the presence of any landslides on or adjacent to the project site. 避免或減少風險 項目開發 當提出一個項目時,就需要對滑坡或斜坡穩定性災害進行評價,主要是評價切坡或填方坡的穩定性以及在項目區及其周遭是否存在滑坡。 2018/11/16
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Conclusion I The first step is early detection by conducting an inventory of fills showing signs of incipient or incremental failure: subsidence, tension cracks, scarps, and slumps. The second step is a risk assessment, including mapping the path of the potential debris flow from a total fill failure. 第一步是進行填土案例的早期檢測,顯示初期或增量破壞跡象:沉陷,張力裂縫,崖,和陷落。 第二個步驟是一個風險評估,包括繪製整個填土破壞潛在泥石流路徑。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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Conclusion II Many debris-flow hazards on natural slopes in remote, difficult-to- access mountains can only be mitigated by risk-reduction efforts such as land-use planning and zoning. It is suggested that agencies devote more attention and resources to early detection, warning, and loss prevention of debris-flow hazards associated with failure of fill slopes. 許多泥石流災害在偏遠的天然斜坡,難以進入山區,只能減少風險,如土地利用規劃和區劃。 建議各機構把更多的注意力和資源,以早期發現,預警,預防損失的泥石流災害與填土斜坡破壞。 2018/11/16 專題報告
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2018/11/16 專題報告
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