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Chapter 4 Establishing contractual obligations

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1 Chapter 4 Establishing contractual obligations
1.1Definition of contract Fast Forward Key terms: A contract may be defined as an agreement which legally binds the parties. 合同是双方当事人经协商一致或意思表示一致(合意)达成的协议,对双方均有法律约束力.一旦违反合同的约定,应承担相应的法律责任(违约责任). 我们每天都在缔结若干合同关系.

2 1.2 The essentials of a contract 合同的要素
The three essential elements are agreement (offer and acceptance)(要约与承诺), consideration(对价) and intention to enter into legal relation(建立法律关系的意图). The courts will usually look for evidence of these elements. 以上三个要素是合同得以成立并生效的最重要的因素,但还有一些因素会影响合同的效力(validity)。

3 1.3Validity factors 影响合同效力的因素
Form:合同形式 Terms (Content):合同内容 consent:真实的同意 Legality:合法性(不违反法律的强制性规定或公共政策) Capacity:缔约能力

4 Key terms: 效力存在瑕疵的合同 Void contract 无效合同,不产生法律上的权利;自始即属无效;绝对不具有法律约束力,如无对价的合同; Voidable contract 可撤销合同,该合同可由当事人之一方(往往是合同关系中受损害或处于弱势的一方)选择而被确认(即为有效的合同)或撤销(即为无效的合同)。如以欺诈\胁迫方式达成,因虚假陈述而订立的合同。未成年人(minor or infant)参与的合同等; Unenforceable contract 不可强制执行的合同,本身为有效合同,但由于存在某些技术上的缺陷,而无法强制执行.例如,根据《防止欺诈法》,合同须具备书面证据,则缺乏书面证据的合同即属于不可强制执行的合同。这种合同目前存在于保证合同与土地权益买卖合同中。

5 1.4Factors affecting the modern contract
Inequality of Bargaining power Many contracts are made between experts and ordinary consumers. The law will intervene only where the formers takes unfair advantage of his position and not simply because one was in an inferior bargaining position. Freedom of contract: 合同自由原则,当事人在不违反法律的强制性规定的前提下,对于是否缔约,选择缔约对象,缔约内容,形式等拥有自由. 并无绝对的合同自由.有限制.特别是当事人的谈判实力存在较大差距时.

6 2. Form of a contract As a general rule, a contract may be made in any form. It may be written, or oral, or inferred from the conduct of the parties. Writing is only necessary in some certain circumstances: some contracts by deed, in writing, evidenced in writing.

7 2.4 Contracts by deed Deed: 契据合同,盖印合同,由当事人签字\盖印并交付的书面文据,它记载一项契约或约定,表示当事人愿意转移某项地产权利,或设定某项义务,或确认某项转让地产权利的行为。多用于土地转让,无对价合同(赠与)等。 A contract by deed include leases, conveyance, a promise not supported by consideration. A contract by deed must be in writing and it must be signed.

8 2.5contracts which must be in writing
Including transfer of shares, interest in land, bill of exchange and cheques, Consumer credit. 2.6 contracts which must be evidenced in writing The contract of guarantee. 保证合同

9 3 Agreement 3.1Offer 要约,指一个或一组在将来实施或抑制实施某一特定行为的允诺;它是一方当事人以特定条款缔结合同的意思表示,并且使一个通情达理的人相信只要对其作出承诺(acceptance),即产生一个具有法律约束力的合同. 提出要约的一方为要约人(offeror),而接受要约的一方为受要约人(offeree).要约只有在送达受要约人处才生效.任何人都不可能接受他所不知道的要约. 要约与承诺是判断合同是否成立的重要标准之一。 Note: A definite offer does not have to be made to a particular person. It may be made to a class of persons or the world at large.

10 A statement of intention
supply of information A statement which sets out possible terms of a contract is not an offer unless this is clearly indicated. A statement of intention Advertising that an event such as an auction will take place is not an offer to sell. Not actionable.

11 An invitation to treat  要约邀请,一方当事人邀请或希望对方当事人提出邀约的意思表示,它对双方当事人均不具有强制效力.例如意在邀请对方协商的广告,商店中标有价格的商品,自助商店中有价展示的商品,拍卖,招标,以及公司发行股票或债券的招股说明书. Notes:注意某些特定的广告可构成要约,例如悬赏广告,但在大多数考试题中,广告均为要约邀请.

12 3.2.1 Auction Sales 拍卖 拍卖公告属于要约邀请. Bid 竞买,在性质上属于要约. Bidder 竞买人 auctioneer 拍卖人,落槌即为接受. 3.2.2 advertisements Partridge v Crittenden 1968  Circulation of a price list is also an invitation to treat.

13 3.2.3 exhibition of goods for sale
Fisher v Bell 1961 Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v Boots Cash Chemists (Southern) 1952 3.2.4 invitation for tenders 邀请投标

14 3.3 termination of offer 要约的终止,失效
An offer may be terminated in any of the following ways: 3.3.1 rejection 拒绝;要约因受要约人拒绝而失效 counter-offer 反要约 A purported acceptance which introduces any new terms is a counter-offer, which has the effect of terminating the original offer. 受要约人的回复对原要约的内容进行了修改,这导致原要约失效(所以不可能在原要约的基础上达成合同),同时还构成一项新的要约,原要约人若接受该新要约,则构成承诺,合同成立. Notes: a request for information is not a counteroffer. Whether or not are frequently used words.

15 3.3.2Lapse of time: 因逾期失效classified into specified time and reasonable time 对合理时间的判断应结合案情来决定
3.3.3 Revocation of an offer 要约的撤回;要约人在收到对方的承诺前随时可以撤回要约,即使该要约规定的承诺有效期尚未届满;撤回的通知可采用明确的表示或行为,该通知到达受要约人处才可生效.

16 3.3.4 Failure of a condition 要约可以附条件.包括默示的条件.
An offer may be conditional. If the condition is not satisfied, the offer is not capable of acceptance. The condition may be express or implied. Case Financing Ltd v Stimson 1962 Hire-purchase  租购;分期付款购买;指货物所有人与租借人之间达成协议,由货物所有人将货物有偿出租给租借人,在租借人付清预定款项后,货物所有权转让给租借人,但在条件未完成之前,所有权仍归属所有人.

17 3.3.5 Termination by death The death of the offeree terminates the offer. The offeror’s death terminates the offer, unless the offeree accepts the offer in ignorance of the death and the offer is not a personal nature.

18 3.4Acceptance Acceptance must be unqualified agreement to all the terms of the offer. Acceptance is generally not effective until communicated to the offeror, the principal exception being where postal rule applies. 承诺须到达要约人处才生效(到达主义),但也有例外(邮寄规则). The forms of acceptance: acceptance may be made by express words, by action, or inferred from conduct.

19 letter of intent 合同意向书;一方向另一方表达的签定合同的意愿.合同意向书并无法律约束力.

20 3.6 the postal rule 邮寄规则,在合同法中具有重要地位
Key terms: 一般情况下,承诺应在到达要约人后生效(到达主义);特殊情况下采用邮寄规则(邮寄主义或投邮主义).要约中有相关条款明确指出应以邮寄方式回复的,或者如果当事人双方意欲以承诺通知投邮时间为承诺时间,则该承诺的投邮时间为承诺生效时间(即合同成立),不须等该邮件实际到达要约人.

21 4.Consideration 对价,又可称为约因,其含义为“法律意义上的对价既可以由属于某一方当事人的权利、利益、利润或收益所构成,也可以由另一方所遭受或承担的忍耐、损害、损失或责任、义务所构成”,或“一方之行为,或容忍或所为之诺言,乃换取对方诺言之代价,此项诺言既有对价关系,自属有效。” 对价的意义在于:一般来说,一项允诺须有对价支持才具有法律约束力,或一项合同须有对价支持才可成立生效。 简单地说,对价是”将欲取之,必先予之”,或为获得某种利益所应付出的代价,这种代价可以是作为(积极的行为,如承诺支付货款)或不作为(消极的行为,如承诺不从事某种行为) 对价也可以视为“为购买允诺所支付的成本”。对价是相对于允诺而言的。

22 4.2 valid consideration Executed consideration 已履行的对价(有效之对价,以某一行为如付款来交换一项作为回报的允诺) illustration Executory consideration 待履行的对价(有效之对价,以一项允诺来交换另一项允诺)illustration

23 4.3 Adequacy and sufficiency of consideration 对价的适当性与充分性;对价应该是充分的,但无须是适当的。
法官在确认对价是否有效存在时要考察两个要素。Consideration need not be adequate. Consideration must be sufficient. 4.3.1 Adequacy Case Thomas v Thomas 1842对允诺与对价之间的价值是否相等,法律一般不予干预,除非两者极度不公平(如因不当影响、胁迫、欺诈等原因而订立的合同) 4.3.2 Sufficiency:对价只要具有一定的价值即可视为充分。

24 5 Intention Intention to create legal relations
Without express statement, the courts apply one of the two rebuttable presumption to a case: Social, domestic and family arrangements are not usually intended to be binding . Commercial agreements are usually intended by the parties involved to be legally binding. 法院应根据当事人的语言,文字和行动来合理地推论出是否设立法律关系的意图.

25 5.2 domestic arrangements
5.2.1 Husband and wife Case Balfour v Balfour 1919:丈夫和妻子之间的争议;认定无设立法律关系的意图 Case Merritt v Merritt 1970: 丈夫与妻子之间关于房地产的争议;认为存在设立法律关系的意图; 5.2.2 relatives Case Jones v Padavatton 1969:母女之间的争议 5.2.3 other domestic arrangement Case Simpkins v Pays 1955 相互有密切关系(但并非亲戚)的人订立的合同

26 5.3 Commercial agreements
商业协议通常被推定具有设立法律关系的意图,除非有明确的否认,或从事实中可作出相反的认定. Case Rose and Frank v Crompton 1923: expressly disclaimed or rebutted. Case Edwards v Skyways Ltd 1964:burden of proof举证责任由试图免除自己责任的一方承担.

27 5.4Transactions binding in honor only
Not to be legally binding Notes: 注意法律中的原则+例外;推定+反证的模式

28 意图是区分一份协议(agreement)和合同(contract)的关键区别。英国合同法法律通过两个假设的理论来建立这个要素:第一,在家庭成员、朋友之间所作出的协议一般被认为是缺乏创立法律关系的意图,从而不具备合同的这个必备要素;第二,商业协议一般被认为是具备合同的这个必要意图。但是,如果有充分的证据证明事实与假设是相反的,则两个假设均可被推翻。譬如,在第一个假设理论中,一般而言,正常夫妻之间的协议一般不认为具有产生法律效力的意图;但是,如果夫妻处于分居期间,或者近亲之间因各自的利益所建立的协议,被认定为具有产生法律效力的意图,可以推翻传统的假设理论。在第二个假设理论中,即使是一份商业协议,如果协议双方通过条款明确约定该协议不产生法律约束力的,则该商业协议不具有法律约束力。


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