第三章 心理学基础知识 Understanding Psychology Medical Psychology

Understanding Psychology 心理的神经生理机制 认知过程 (The Cognition Process) 动机与情绪 (Motivation & Emotion) 人格 (Personality)

心理的神经生理基础 心理是脑的功能 大脑皮层(Cerebral cortex)的分区及功能Brodmann,1909 感觉区 (Sensory area) 运动区 (Motor area) 言语区 (Speech area) 联合区 (Association area)

大脑两半球的一侧优势(Cerebral Lateralization) 速视法 双耳分听试验 一侧脑麻痹法 对割裂脑病人的临床观察和有控制的测验 根据上述不同方法的研究,一般认为:大多数右利手者大脑左侧半球的优势在语音、顺序、时间、节奏以及命题的逻辑分析等方面；右半球的优势在非语言的、整体的形状和空间的知觉方面；此外左、右两半球在情绪反应方面似乎也有差别。右半球的反应较强烈或较不乐观。

人的面部表情也是左右不对称的,有人做过试验:将演员表演喜、怒、哀、惧各种表情的照片，从脸的正中线切成两半，再把反着面洗印的两半照片拼接成一个左右两侧都是原来的左边脸或右边脸的脸部照片。将这两种拼接的照片混在一起，请被试者从中挑选出他们认为表情更丰富的照片。结果挑选出的用左边脸拼成的照片要多得多。这结果也同解剖的知识相吻合。左边脸，特别是其下部,接受来自右脑投射来的神经纤维。看来,右侧脑在脸部表情中起更多的作用。

The Cognition Process 感觉与知觉 (Sensation & Perception) 学习 (Learning) 记忆 (Memory) 思维 (Thinking)

感觉剥夺 Sensory Deprivation 感受性(Sensitivity)及其变化规律 Sensation 的概念与作用 感觉剥夺 Sensory Deprivation 感受性(Sensitivity)及其变化规律 感觉阈限(Sensory Threshold) 感觉适应(Sensory Adaptation) 感觉对比 感觉的相互作用 感觉代偿

Key Words Sensation The process in which the sense organs’ receptor cells are stimulated and reply initial information to higher brain centers for further processing

Perception 的概念 Perception的一般特性 知觉的选择性Perceptual Selectiveness 知觉定势Perceptual Set 知觉的整体性Perceptual Organization 知觉的理解性Perceptual Interpretation 知觉的恒常性 (Perceptual Constancy)

Key Words Perception The process by which an organism selects and interprets sensory input so that it acquires meaning. Absolute threshold The minimum amount of physical energy needed for an observer to perceive a stimulus is called an absolute threshold.

Different threshold (JND) The lowest level of stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred. Sensory adaptation The tendency of sensory systems to respond less to stimuli that continue without change. Perceptual constancy The organization of changing sensations into percepts that are relatively stable in size, shape, and color.

Learning的概念 Learning的理论 Observational learning Cognitive Learning 行为或行为潜能的改变 行为变化是相对持久的 由练习或经验引起的 Learning的理论 Classical condition Operant condition Observational learning Cognitive Learning

Key Words Learning Relative permanent change in an organism that occurs as a result of experiences in the environment Classical conditionding Conditioning process in which an originally neutral stimulus,by repeated pairing with a stimulus that normally elicits a response, comes to elicit a similar or even identical response; also know as Pavlovian conditioning

Operant conditioning Conditioning in which an increase or decrease in the probability that a behavior will recur is affected by the delivery of reinforcement of punishment as a consequence of the behavior; also known as instrumental conditioning. Observational learning Organisms learn new responses by observing the behavior of a model and then imitating it.

格式塔的学习理论——顿悟学习 Insight 知觉重组 内隐学习 (Latent learning)

Memory概述 Memory 的过程 识记 (Memorization) 保持 (Retention) 再认 (Recognition) 再现 (Repruduction)

Key Words Memory The ability to recall past events, images, ideas, or skills; the storage system that allows for retention and retrieval of previously learned information.

感觉记忆 (Sensory memory) 短时记忆 (STM, Short-term memory) 长时记忆 (LTM, Long-term memory)

Sensory memory 无限量存贮 存贮时间短 0.25-2s’ “一瞥之见” 感觉后像，即按刺激的物理特征原样直接加以编码和储存的 模式识别 (pattern recognition) 即从sensory memory 向short-term memory传递信息并赋予它意义的过程。确定选择哪些信息传输到短时记忆，而让哪些信息从感觉记忆中衰退，是注意 (attention)的作用。

Short-term memory 编码形式： 听觉代码R.Conrad, 1964 视觉代码 语义代码 存贮容量: 7±2 组块 (chunk) 存贮持久性L.R.Perterson, 1959 影片：《记忆碎片》

康拉德(R.Conrad,1964)的经典性研究：选用B、C、P、T、V、F、M、N、S、X等10个字母为材料,从中随机取出6个组成字母序列,用视觉方式一个个地呈现给被试,要求他们记住。然后让被试严格地按字母呈现的顺序进行回忆,并对回忆中出现的差错进行分析。结果表明,回忆时出现的错误主要表现为声音混淆。即发音近似的字母混淆程度较高,如将B误为P,将V误为B,而发音不相似的字母之间则较少发生混淆。

在彼德森等人(L. R. Peterson&M. J 在彼德森等人(L.R.Peterson&M.J.PeterSOIl,1959)的实验：被试的任务是记住3个辅音字母组成的无意义音节,18秒钟后再进行回忆。在正常情况下,被试正确完成这个任务是轻而易举的事。然而,在剌激呈现以后,立即呈现一个三位数的数字,要求被试以这个数字为起点,进行连续减3的倒数数,持续到18秒为止。这时再让被试回忆字母,回忆成绩不足20%,即回忆的平均数还达不到一个字母。是倒数数的任务阻止了被试对识记材料的复述。

Long-term memory 编码形式： 语义代码 视觉代码（遗觉像实验/照片式记忆）

遗 忘 (Forgetting) 干扰理论 衰退理论 动机性遗忘理论 提取失败理论 “提笔忘字”“舌尖现象” 有关虚假记忆

Thinking概述 概括性 间接性 对经验的改组 Thinking的过程 问题解决 (Problem solving) 影响问题解决的因素

Key Words Thinking The higher mental process which is the manipulation of mental respresentations of information Problem solving The process of transforming one situation into another that meets a goal

Motivation & Emotion Motivation Emotion

Motivation的涵义与功能 动机与需要 Motivation & Need 动机理论 Motivation Theory 动机冲突与挫折 Motivation Conflict & Frustration

Key Words Motivation Any internal condition, although usually an internal one, that initiates, activates, or maintailns an organism’s goal-directed behavior.

本能理论 (Instinct theory) 驱力理论 (Drive theory) 唤醒理论 (Arousal theory) 诱因理论 (Incentive theory) 认知理论 (Cognitive theory) 期待价值理论 (Expectancy-value theory) 自我效能论 (Self-efficacy theory)

Motivation conflict 双趋冲突 (Approach-approach conflict) 双避冲突 (Avoidance-avoidance conflict) 趋避冲突 (Approach-avoidance conflict) 多重趋避冲突 (Multiple approach-avoidance conflict)

Frustration的涵义 挫折情境 挫折认知 挫折行为 Frustration反应 情绪性反应 攻击/冷漠/退化/固执等 理智性反应 个性变化（如：文革迫害）

Emotion概述 情绪、情感与感情 主观体验 (Subjective experience) 外部表现/表情 (Emotional expression) 生理唤醒 (Physical arousal)

Key Words Emotion An evaluative response (a positive or negative feeling state) that typically includes subjective experience, physiological arousal, and emotional expression

Emotion 的分类 基本情绪 (Basic emotion) 快乐(Happiness) 悲哀(Sadness) 愤怒(Anger) 恐惧(Fear) 情绪状态的分类 心境(Mood) 激情(Affective impluse) 应激(Stress)

Emotion 与脑 Emotion的脑中枢机制 Emotion的外周神经机制

Emotion Theory James-Lange theroy 情绪是植物神经系统活动的产物， 外界刺激—生理反应—情绪体验 Cannon-Bard theory 情绪的中心不在外周神经系统， 而在中枢神经系统的丘脑

Cognition & Emotion Arnold的评定-兴奋说 情绪的产生是大脑皮层和皮下组织协同活动的结果，大脑皮层的兴奋是情绪产生最重要的条件。 Schachter’s two-factor theory of emotion 对特定情绪而言，生理唤醒与对生理变化的认知性唤醒两大因素必不可少。情绪状态是由认知过程、生理状态和环境因素在大脑皮层中整合的结果。

动机- 分化理论

Personality Personality 的涵义 独特性/稳定性/整体性/功能性 Personality 的结构 Personality Theory

Key Words Personality The enduring patterns of thoughts, feeling, and behavior that are expressed in different circumstances.

气质 (Temperment) 高级神经活动类型说 Thomas-Chess的气质类型说 活动水平/生理活动的节律性 注意分散程度/接近或回避/适应性 注意的广度和坚持性/反应的强度 反应阈限/心情质量 容易型 困难型 迟缓型

性格 (Character) C.G.Jung “心理倾向” Spranger “社会文化形态” Friedman & Rosenman “攻击性\好胜心等

自我调控系统 自我认知 (Self-cognition) “点红实验” 自我体验 (Self-experience) 自我控制 (Self-regulation)

Personality 的成因 生物遗传因素 社会文化因素 家庭环境因素 早期童年经验 自然物理环境

Personality Theory 类型理论 (Theory of personality type) 特质理论 (Theory of personality trait) 层次理论