Involvement of social work in social assistance - an international perspective and two country examples from Moldova and South Africa Joanna Rogers – International social work consultant ADB project ‘Strategies for involving social work in social assistance in the People’s Republic of China Beijing, 7-8 December 2015 Disclaimer: The views expressed in this document are those of the author, and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), its Board of Directors, or the governments they represent. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this document, and accept no responsibility for any consequence of their use. By making any designation or reference to a particular territory or geographical area, or by using the term “country” in this document, ADB does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.

© 2015 Oxford Policy Management Ltd Key Issue Social work exists within specific cultural, political, social and economic contexts and cannot be divorced from them To what extent can there be, therefore, a universal understanding or definition of social work? © 2015 Oxford Policy Management Ltd

Three main social work approaches Social administration Individual casework and case management Social action or community engagement Working with individuals, in both problem-solving and therapeutic ways - the individualist/therapeutic approach Working as a go-between, ensuring that resources are mobilised to meet need, with particular stress on the tasks of liaison and coordination- the administrative approach Working with groups and communities, to construct creative and new types of response to problems, including the development of new services and resources- a collectivist approach Lymbury (2005)

Conceptualization of social work approaches in social protection Individual casework and case management Social administration Social action or community engagement Administrative approach Individualist/ therapeutic approach Collectivist approach Social assistance Social services Social insurance Different types of social protection interventions: protective, preventive, promotive and transformative Devereux and Sabates-Wheeler, 2004 Conceptual definition is as follows: SOCIAL PROTECTION describes all public and private initiatives that provide income or consumption transfers to the poor, protect the vulnerable against livelihood risks, and enhance the social status and rights of the marginalised; with the overall objective of reducing the economic and social vulnerability of poor, vulnerable and marginalised groups. Our working definition elaborates on the mechanisms that deliver social protection: SOCIAL PROTECTION is the set of all initiatives, both formal and informal, that provide: social assistance to extremely poor individuals and households; social services to groups who need special care or would otherwise be denied access to basic services; social insurance to protect people against the risks and consequences of livelihood shocks; and social equity to protect people against social risks such as discrimination or abuse. Transformative social protection Stephen Devereux and Rachel Sabates-Wheeler IDS Working Paper 232 First published by the Institute of Development Studies in October 2004 © Institute of Development Studies 2004 http://www2.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Transformative_Social_Protection.pdf (accessed 15 November 2015) Social equity Protective, preventive, promotive and transformative social protection interventions

The place and role of social work Is the structure of society basically fine and people need help with adjusting to it or does society need amending in a more radical way? Khoo and Nygren have contrasted the different contexts in which child welfare is practised within Sweden and Ontario, Canada (Khoo and Nygren, 2006). In Sweden social work is described as one arm of a comparatively strong social democratic welfare state with a value on universal access to benefits and services and in Ontario, where the emphasis is on residualism where services are only provided to resolve difficulties once they have arisen, the values are described as being on individual freedom and responsibility and limited state intervention.

International Federation of Social Workers - global definition of social work “Social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people. Principles of social justice, human rights, collective responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work.  Underpinned by theories of social work, social sciences, humanities and indigenous knowledge, social work engages people and structures to address life challenges and enhance wellbeing.” IFSW 2014 It is interesting to note the change from the 2013 definition ‘The social work profession facilitates social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people.’ The new version emphasises the practice nature of the profession and its academic discipline which, being eclectic and drawing on a number of other disciplines, has often been disputed. It is also interesting to note that this definition encompasses the three approaches described above by Lymbury or the three strands used earlier in this report, but the weight is put on the social action element of promoting active social change, empowerment and liberation with individual casework aspects coming lower down.

Is social work a ‘true’ profession? Social work is both interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary and draws on a wide array of scientific theories and research. ‘Science’ is understood in this context in its most basic meaning as ‘knowledge’. Social work draws on its own constantly developing theoretical foundation and research as well as theories from other human sciences including but not limited to community development, social pedagogy, administration, anthropology, ecology, economics, education, management, nursing, psychiatry, psychology, public health and sociology. The uniqueness of social work research and theories is that they are applied and emancipatory. http://ifsw.org/get-involved/global-definition-of-social-work) the debate about whether social work is a true profession with its own academic discipline or simply is an eclectic mix drawn from other disciplines such as psychology and sociology. At present, it is clear from the literature that social work regards itself as a profession while other professions may continue to question this. The term ‘practice-based profession’ is often used in recognition of the fact that much of its specific knowledge derives from its application in practice. Several writers on social work have commented that the fact that social workers have to be licensed to practice in many countries around the world brings with it recognition as a profession with the capacity to do good or harm. The International Federation of Social Work describes social work as follows:

CANADA Social work is a profession concerned with helping individuals, families, groups and communities to enhance their individual and collective well-being. It aims to help people develop their skills and their ability to use their own resources and those of the community to resolve problems. Social work is concerned with individual and personal problems but also with broader social issues such as poverty, unemployment and domestic violence. Human rights and social justice are the philosophical underpinnings of social work practice. The uniqueness of social work practice is in the blend of some particular values, knowledge and skills, including the use of relationship as the basis of all interventions and respect for the client’s choice and involvement. (Canadian Association of Social Workers) The three strands of social work discussed above – social administration, individual casework and social action or the administrative, individualist/therapeutic and collective approaches – are evident in all of the national definitions to varying degrees suggesting an overall consistency which then takes on particular emphasis at national level depending on a range of different contextual factors.

UNITED KINGDOM Social workers play a pivotal and often leading role in safeguarding people’s rights, building relationships to support and empower children, adults and families to make important choices about the direction of their lives. (The College of Social Work) Social work grew out of humanitarian and democratic ideals, and its values are based on respect for the equality, worth, and dignity of all people. Since its beginnings over a century ago, social work practice has focused on meeting human needs and developing human potential. Human rights and social justice serve as the motivation and justification for social work action. In solidarity with those who are disadvantaged, the profession strives to alleviate poverty and to work with vulnerable and oppressed people in order to promote social inclusion. Social work values are embodied in the profession’s national and international codes of ethics. (British Association of Social Work provides a Code of Ethics for social work ) There is no single definition of social work in the UK. The profession which has a protected title is regulated by The Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) which sets out the standards which must be met by a person holding that title and the College of Social Work (TCSW) has mapped the Professional Capabilities Framework (PCF) on to these standards. The College also provides a broad description of this role as:

USA [Social workers are] graduates of schools of social work (in the U.S.A. with either bachelor’s, Master’s or doctoral degrees) who use their knowledge and skills to provide social services for clients (who may be individuals, families, groups, communities, organizations, or society in general).  Social workers help people increase their capacities for problem solving and coping, and they help them obtain needed resources, facilitate interactions between individuals and between people and their environments, make organizations responsible to people, and influence social policies. Social workers may work directly with clients addressing individual, family and community issues, or they may work at a systems level on regulations and policy development, or as administrators and planners of large social service systems (Barker, 2003).

FRANCE The focus of debate is no longer between universities and professions, but between rival definitions of the role of social work within an even broader knowledge base than that provided by the already «interdisciplinary» models of the nineteen eighties. Now, instead of learning about sociology, psychology and social psychology - the three mainstays of most training centres until the middle of the nineteen nineties, students are expected to develop communication, advocacy, legal and contractually based negotiation skills. They learn «strategic thinking» and are invited to carry out a neighbourhood profile analysis for urban development projects. France Again while not a formal definition, the situation in France is described in the following terms by one academic in ‘Three Decades of Social Work in France: from Security within the Welfare State to a State of «Disembedded Modernity’ (Ward, 2006):There is a view that traditional theory about the helping relationship based on psychodynamic and psychoanalytical frameworks has not kept pace with the increasing complexity of means tested benefits or with the increasing managerial demands that came with them. But additionally in France social workers were no longer independent advocates for clients claiming benefits but they became administrative gatekeepers both to the monetary benefit and to the means for realising each individual «insertion» project, insertion being a person’s integration into French life.

Common ground Variance To what extent can there be a universal understanding or definition of social work? Common ground Variance Social work is a practice and research based profession Individual, collective and social administration approaches Social workers have specialized education, knowledge and skills Protected profession status Level of emphasis on the role of social workers in community or social development/ changing society, achieving social justice, realising rights of vulnerable people Policy goals – more equal society with high levels of universal services? Or smaller state role and a greater role/responsibility for individuals and families? Protected profession status may be linked to different stages of development. But could also be linked to different cultural, social and political contexts.The social worker and the client have greater protection if the profession is protected. Social workers have to have specialised education, knowledge and skills so the tendency is to move towards professionalisation. There is however a recognition of the important role that can be played in social work by para professionals or community actors with strong knowledge and competencies in their own communities. The rest is policy and politics… and less about social work as such?

MOLDOVA Social Assistance – a component of the national social protection system, in which the state and civil society engage to prevent, limit or eliminate the temporary or permanent effects of events that are considered social risks which can generate marginalisation or social exclusion of persons and families in difficulty (Law on Social Assistance No. 547 from 25.12.2003). Social Assistance represents the main principle of social protection by which the state intervenes in the prevention or elimination of the negative effects which affect the wellbeing of the most vulnerable groups of the population, meeting the fundamental needs of these groups and restoring their vital functionalities (Law on Social Services No. 123 from 18.06.2010). In all these definitions the emphasis is on the administrative and individual casework aspects of social work, but it is interesting to note the slightly differing emphases of these three definitions. In the first , from the Law on Social Assistance of 2003, the role of civil society organisations as actors in the provision of social assistance is made explicit alongside the role of the state and the language used situates social assistance in relation to prevention of social exclusion and marginalisation by ‘engaging’ - an active but sensitive role which leaves the nature of the engagement open. In the second definition from the Law on Social Services of 2010, the civil society organisations are not mentioned and the state ‘intervenes’ which tends to suggest a more controlling or aggressive engagement. The second definition places less emphasis than the first on prevention and greater emphasis on dealing with the negative consequences of problems, but could also be intervening to prevent further deterioration of a situation. At the same time, the second definition introduces a concept of achieving wellbeing and the meeting of fundamental needs as a general aim for all vulnerable groups. The final definition from the MLSPF Annual Social Report defines social assistance broadly as including health and education as well as social services and adheres to the emphasis on prevention from the first definition from the Law on Social Assistance.

Four types of social work practitioners defined in the Moldova legislative and policy framework 1. Community Social Workers – generic social worker providing assistance at the community level to a range of clients including support with applying for cash benefits, individual case work and community mobilisation. 2. Specialised social services providers – social worker providing specialised support to specific client groups in a range of settings and services including for example residential services, day care, child protection and care services, community centres, mobile teams 3. Social worker with specialist functions – for example community based child protection specialists who are social workers focused on child protection and care in the family and community; Home care workers – provide home help services mainly to older people and adults with disabilities in their homes Social work researcher and educators are also recognised and institutionalised in the framework

Services delivered by Territorial Social Assistance Service in Moldova Source: TSAS Assessment, OPM/P4EC Moldova, 2014

Moldova – levels of social work involvement in social assistance TERTIARY HIGH NEED SECONDARY PRIMARY Family/household TSAS SW SPECIALISTS COMMUNITY SOCIAL ASSISTANT

Modes of delivery and regulation Mainly government services – local authority financed and managed Service standards and guidance issued by national government, but not regulated New system of licensing non-government service providers No mechanism for accreditation or licensing; continuous professional development for social workers required, but not regulated

Contribution to achieving policy goals? Child protection, family support and prevention of child separation Increasing equity – access to universal and second tier services for families, people with disabilities and older people, especially in rural areas Social inclusion – people with disabilities Poverty alleviation - targeting and coverage of social assistance programs Work across silos – housing, social assistance, health, education.

SOUTH AFRICA 1 National Association of Social Workers South Africa CORE VALUES Service: Social Workers are committed to helping people in need and addressing social problems. Social Justice: Social Workers address social injustices of all forms. Relationships: Social Workers recognize the central importance of relationships in human well-being. Integrity: Social Workers value and protect the trust they earn with clients and communities. Competence: Social Workers practice within their abilities and work to enhance their professional expertise.

SOUTH AFRICA 2 South African Council for Social Service Professionals (SACSSP) ETHICAL VALUES Social justice – Social workers challenge social injustice. They pursue social change, particularly with and on behalf of vulnerable an disadvantaged individuals, families, groups and communities Service delivery – Social workers’ primary goals is to assist individuals, families, groups and communities and address social needs and problems.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT APPROACH Equal emphasis on social and economic aspects of development Challenges in implementation: “Despite having adopted a developmental approach to service delivery, the focus of the DSD over the last decade has been predominantly on social security, to the detriment of other developmental social services.’ Strategic Plan Update DSD 2007-2010 (2007)

Integrated service delivery model (DSD, 2005)

Department of Social Development – policies and programs Delivery mechanisms Department of Social Development – policies and programs Social grants administered through SASSA Services provided by NGOs and provincial/local government organizations – formal and informal Mixed modes of delivery – public/NGO with funding from public sources SASSA – South African Social Assistance Agency – Care Dependency Gran, Child Support Grnt, Disability Grant, Foster Child Grant, Grants in Aid, Older Persons, Social Relief of Distress, War Veteran’s Grant

Conclusions There is a role for social work in social protection however it is defined – social workers need to be equipped with the competencies and regulatory space to practice preventive, promotive and transformative social work as well as protective According to Kaseke: “to avert deprivation or to mitigate the impact of an adverse shock” (UNICEF, 2008) – community development approaches to create informal insurance and ‘shock absorbing’ systems that can gradually be formalised Social workers work with communities to promote their ability to support poor households to establish sustainable livelihoods (e.g BRAC programs) and access education for children (break the cycle of poverty) Transformative – pro-active social inclusion, addressing social injustice e.g people with disabilities and from minotiry communities… Presentation at the 1st Namibian Social Protection Conference-2015: Towards Comprehensive Social Protection for All. 7-9 July 2015, Windhoek By Professor Edwell Kaseke, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

Issues for consideration Generic/specialized social work (e.g. for children and those in need of protective services) Administrative burden of case work or social administration Locally relevant and rooted practice More expertise vs. better linkages to more holistic family/community approaches Social work requires documentation and social administration – how to ensure that social workers who have special knowledge and skills eg for working with children or with people with disaiblities, community programs, etc can use these skills rather than spend their time on administration? How to regulate /license/ accredit practitioners and services if it is difficult to define – compared for example to medicine or education – a common set of professional competencies/values/ethics etc.?

国际视野下社会工作介入社会救助 ——基于摩尔多瓦共和国和南非的案例分析 Joanna Rogers – 国际社会工作顾问 ADB 项目——中国社会工作介入社会救助的策略 北京，2015年12月7日-8日

社会工作依赖于特定的文化、政治、社会及经济背景，并与之密切相关 核心问题 社会工作依赖于特定的文化、政治、社会及经济背景，并与之密切相关 因此，在何种程度上会达成一个对社会工作的普遍理解和统一的定义？ © 2015 Oxford Policy Management Ltd

三种主要的社会工作方法 社会行政 个案工作及个案管 理 社会行动或社区介入 与个人合作，运用解决问题和治疗的方法 – 个人主义/治疗方法 个案工作及个案管 理 社会行动或社区介入 与个人合作，运用解决问题和治疗的方法 – 个人主义/治疗方法 作为中间人，确保资源整合以满足需要，特别强调任务之间的联系与协调- 行政工作方法 与小组和社区合作，构建具有创造性和新型的解决问题方法, i包括发掘新的服务和资源——-集体主义工作方法 Lymbury (2005)

保护性、预防性、促进性以及变革性的 社会保护干预 社会保护中社会工作方法的概念化 个体个案工作和个案管理 社会行政 社会行动或社区介入 行政方法 个体/治疗方法 集体主义方法 社会救助 社会服务 社会保险 Different types of social protection interventions: protective, preventive, promotive and transformative Devereux and Sabates-Wheeler, 2004 Conceptual definition is as follows: SOCIAL PROTECTION describes all public and private initiatives that provide income or consumption transfers to the poor, protect the vulnerable against livelihood risks, and enhance the social status and rights of the marginalised; with the overall objective of reducing the economic and social vulnerability of poor, vulnerable and marginalised groups. Our working definition elaborates on the mechanisms that deliver social protection: SOCIAL PROTECTION is the set of all initiatives, both formal and informal, that provide: social assistance to extremely poor individuals and households; social services to groups who need special care or would otherwise be denied access to basic services; social insurance to protect people against the risks and consequences of livelihood shocks; and social equity to protect people against social risks such as discrimination or abuse. Transformative social protection Stephen Devereux and Rachel Sabates-Wheeler IDS Working Paper 232 First published by the Institute of Development Studies in October 2004 © Institute of Development Studies 2004 http://www2.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Transformative_Social_Protection.pdf (accessed 15 November 2015) 社会公平 保护性、预防性、促进性以及变革性的 社会保护干预

社会结构基本良好，人们是否还需要帮助其进行调整或一种更为激进的改良？ 社会工作的地位与角色 社会结构基本良好，人们是否还需要帮助其进行调整或一种更为激进的改良？ Khoo and Nygren have contrasted the different contexts in which child welfare is practised within Sweden and Ontario, Canada (Khoo and Nygren, 2006). In Sweden social work is described as one arm of a comparatively strong social democratic welfare state with a value on universal access to benefits and services and in Ontario, where the emphasis is on residualism where services are only provided to resolve difficulties once they have arisen, the values are described as being on individual freedom and responsibility and limited state intervention.

国际社会工作者联盟 ——社会工作的国际定义 “社会工作是以实践为基础的职业，是促进社会改革和发展、提高社会凝聚力、赋权并解放人类的一门学科。社会工作的核心准则是追求社会正义、人权、集体责任和尊重多样性。基于社会工作、社会学、人类学和本土化知识的理论基础，社会工作鼓励人们和各类机构应对生活挑战和改善福利。” IFSW 2014 It is interesting to note the change from the 2013 definition ‘The social work profession facilitates social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment and liberation of people.’ The new version emphasises the practice nature of the profession and its academic discipline which, being eclectic and drawing on a number of other disciplines, has often been disputed. It is also interesting to note that this definition encompasses the three approaches described above by Lymbury or the three strands used earlier in this report, but the weight is put on the social action element of promoting active social change, empowerment and liberation with individual casework aspects coming lower down.

社会工作真的是一种职业吗？ 社会工作是一门跨学科的吸收多门学科理论的科学理论和研究。“科学”在这里可以理解为其最基本的含义，即“知识”。社会工作利用其自身持续发展的理论基础和研究以及吸收其它人类学包括但不限于社区发展、社会教育学、行政管理学、人类学、生物学、经济学、教育学、管理学、护理学、精神病学、心理学、公共卫生和社会学。社会工作研究和理论的独特之处在于它们的应用和解放。http://ifsw.org/get-involved/global-definition-of-social-work) the debate about whether social work is a true profession with its own academic discipline or simply is an eclectic mix drawn from other disciplines such as psychology and sociology. At present, it is clear from the literature that social work regards itself as a profession while other professions may continue to question this. The term ‘practice-based profession’ is often used in recognition of the fact that much of its specific knowledge derives from its application in practice. Several writers on social work have commented that the fact that social workers have to be licensed to practice in many countries around the world brings with it recognition as a profession with the capacity to do good or harm. The International Federation of Social Work describes social work as follows:

加拿大 社会工作是一种关于帮助个体、家庭、群体和社区增进个体和集体福利的职业。它旨在帮助人们开发自身的技术和能力，使用自身或社区资源解决问题。社会工作关注个体问题，但也关注更广泛的社会问题如贫困、失业及家庭暴力。 人权和社会公正是社会工作实践的理论基础。社会工作的独特性与一些特定的价值、知识与技能相融合，包括使用关系作为所有干预的基础；尊重委托人的选择与介入。(加拿大社会工作者协会) The three strands of social work discussed above – social administration, individual casework and social action or the administrative, individualist/therapeutic and collective approaches – are evident in all of the national definitions to varying degrees suggesting an overall consistency which then takes on particular emphasis at national level depending on a range of different contextual factors.

英国 社会工作在很多方面扮演了关键的且通常是领导性的角色，例如保障人们的权利，为帮助和支持儿童、成人以及家庭做出重要的决策而建立社会关系等。(The College of Social Work) 社会工作的理念源于人道主义和民主思想，它的价值建立在尊重平等、财产和人类尊严之上。社会工作的实践始于一个世纪之前，自那时起，它就专注于满足人们的需求、发掘人类的潜能。人权和社会公正是社会工作行为的动力与支撑。这一行业与有缺陷者团结一致，力图消除贫困，与弱者和受压迫者一道，促进社会融合。社会工作行业的国际和国内道德准则充分体现了它的价值。 (英国社会工作者协会制定了社会工作道德准则) There is no single definition of social work in the UK. The profession which has a protected title is regulated by The Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) which sets out the standards which must be met by a person holding that title and the College of Social Work (TCSW) has mapped the Professional Capabilities Framework (PCF) on to these standards. The College also provides a broad description of this role as:

美国 社会工作者均拥有学校学历教育（在美国有社会本科学位、硕士学位或博士学位），他们利用自身知识和技能为需要者(可能是个人、家庭、群体、社区或整个社会)提供服务 。社会工作者帮助人们提高解决问题的能力，获得所需资源，增进人与人、人与环境以及人与社会之间的互动，增强组织的社会责任感，影响社会政策。社会工作者可能直接与需要者合作解决个人、家庭和社区问题，也可能在系统层面上促进规范和政策制定；还可能是建立宏观社会服务系统中的管理者和计划者 (Barker, 2003)。

法国 辩论的焦点不再是在大学与职业之间，而是20世纪80年代的跨学科定义与目前在一个更加宽泛的知识基础上定义社会工作的角色之间的冲突。 直到20世纪90年代中期，社会学、心理学、社会心理学仍是大多数职业学校的核心课程，而现在，学生们需要学习沟通、支持、法律及契约基础上的谈判技能，学习战略思维，为城市发展项目进行邻域剖面分析 France Again while not a formal definition, the situation in France is described in the following terms by one academic in ‘Three Decades of Social Work in France: from Security within the Welfare State to a State of «Disembedded Modernity’ (Ward, 2006):There is a view that traditional theory about the helping relationship based on psychodynamic and psychoanalytical frameworks has not kept pace with the increasing complexity of means tested benefits or with the increasing managerial demands that came with them. But additionally in France social workers were no longer independent advocates for clients claiming benefits but they became administrative gatekeepers both to the monetary benefit and to the means for realising each individual «insertion» project, insertion being a person’s integration into French life.

在何种程度上有一个对社会工作的普遍性理解或定义？ 相同点 不同点 职业地位的受保护状况 对社会工作者所扮演角色的重视程度不同，如促进社区/社会发展，实现社会公正，保障弱势群体的权利等 政策目标——拥有高水平社会服务的更公平的社会？或者强调个体和家庭责任，弱化政府角色？ 社会工作是基于职业的实践与研究 个体的、集体的以及社会管理的方法 社会工作者具有专业的教育、知识及技能 Protected profession status may be linked to different stages of development. But could also be linked to different cultural, social and political contexts.The social worker and the client have greater protection if the profession is protected. Social workers have to have specialised education, knowledge and skills so the tendency is to move towards professionalisation. There is however a recognition of the important role that can be played in social work by para professionals or community actors with strong knowledge and competencies in their own communities. The rest is policy and politics… and less about social work as such?

摩尔多瓦 社会救助 ——国家社会保护体系的一部分，政府及社会团体参与预防、限制或消除被认为是社会风险的暂时性或永久性事件，这些社会风险可能产生困难家庭、个体的边缘化或社会排斥等问题。 (社会救助法第547条，2003，12,25). 社会救助代表了社会保护的主要原则。政府通过社会保护的干预方式来预防或消除影响最弱势群体福利的负面因素，满足他们的基本需要并恢复他们的主要功能。(社会救助法第123 条，2010,6,18). In all these definitions the emphasis is on the administrative and individual casework aspects of social work, but it is interesting to note the slightly differing emphases of these three definitions. In the first , from the Law on Social Assistance of 2003, the role of civil society organisations as actors in the provision of social assistance is made explicit alongside the role of the state and the language used situates social assistance in relation to prevention of social exclusion and marginalisation by ‘engaging’ - an active but sensitive role which leaves the nature of the engagement open. In the second definition from the Law on Social Services of 2010, the civil society organisations are not mentioned and the state ‘intervenes’ which tends to suggest a more controlling or aggressive engagement. The second definition places less emphasis than the first on prevention and greater emphasis on dealing with the negative consequences of problems, but could also be intervening to prevent further deterioration of a situation. At the same time, the second definition introduces a concept of achieving wellbeing and the meeting of fundamental needs as a general aim for all vulnerable groups. The final definition from the MLSPF Annual Social Report defines social assistance broadly as including health and education as well as social services and adheres to the emphasis on prevention from the first definition from the Law on Social Assistance.

摩尔多瓦立法及政策框架中社会工作从业者的四种类型 1.社区社会工作者—一般性的社会工作者，在社区层面为需要者提供帮助， 包括帮助申请现金救助，个案工作，以及社区动员。 2.专业社会服务提供者— 社会工作者为特定人群提供广泛的设施和服务支持，包括，住宅服务，日托服务，儿童保护和照料服务，社区服务中心，流动工作队等。 3.具有专家功能的社会工作者 –如基于社区儿童保护专门工作者，即专注于家庭和社区的儿童保护和照顾的专业社区工作者。 4.家庭护理工作者–主要为老年人和残疾人提供家庭照顾服务。 Social work researcher and educators are also recognised and institutionalised in the framework

摩尔多瓦地方社会救助服务体系(TSAS)提供的服务 为老年人和残疾人提供的服务 现金及实物救助 家庭及儿童保护 家庭支持 家庭寄养 亲属抚养 领养 家庭型福利院 家庭照顾服务 个人救助 短期照顾 成人家庭安置 AS/WS 物资救助 交通补贴 供应假肢 社会食堂 流动工作队 Source: TSAS Assessment, OPM/P4EC Moldova, 2014 儿童的社区之家 生活保护 儿童临时看护中心 儿童日托中心 多功能社区服务中心 成人的社区之家 老年人、残疾人救济所 成人临时看护中心 成人日托中心 多功能社区服务中心

摩尔多瓦 – 社会工作介入社会救助的水平 三级 高级需求 二级 初级 家庭 TSAS 社会工作专家 社区社会救助

中央政府制定服务标准与指导原则，但不负责监管 非政府服务提供者的许可体系 递送模式与规定 主要是政府服务– 地方政府出资并管理 中央政府制定服务标准与指导原则，但不负责监管 非政府服务提供者的许可体系 缺乏认证和许可机制；社会工作者进一步继续发展的需要，但没有相应的规章制度。

促进公平 –家庭、老年人、残疾人等均可获得普遍性和次级服务，尤其是在农村地区。 有助于实现政策目标? 儿童保护，家庭支持，预防儿童离散 促进公平 –家庭、老年人、残疾人等均可获得普遍性和次级服务，尤其是在农村地区。 残疾人的社会融合 消除贫困-社会救助项目的目标定位与覆盖范围 Work across silos – housing, social assistance, health, education.

南非 1 南非全国社工协会 核心价值观 服务: 社会工作者应当致力于帮助有需要的人并关注社会问题。 社会公正: 社会工作者关注各种形式的社会不公正。 关系：社会工作者认识到社会关系在人类福祉中的重要作用。 正直: 社会工作者珍视并保护他们在接受服务者和社区那里赢得的信任。 胜任力:社会工作者在能力范围内行动并努力提高自己的专业技能

南非 2 南非社会服务专业人才委员会 (SACSSP) 伦理价值观 社会公正– 社会工作者挑战社会不平等。他们寻求社会改变，特别是为弱势个体、家庭、群体以及社区追求改变。 提供服务–社会工作者的基本目标是帮助个体、家庭、群体及社区，满足社会需要，解决社会问题。

社会发展方法 社会与经济发展并重 实施中的挑战: “尽管在提供服务时强调发展的方法，在过去的十年中对于DSD的重视主要是将社会保障置于优先地位，从而损害了其他发展性的社会服务。”Strategic Plan Update DSD 2007-2010 (2007)

完整服务提供模型 (DSD, 2005) 退 出 或 社会保险 推 受益者及社区分析 社区发展 社会服务专家评估 进入点 荐 社服 务 社服 务 监 控 与 评 估

省级/地方政府及NGOs 提供服务，– 正式的和非正式的 递送机制 社会发展部– 政策及项目 社会救助补助由SASSA管理 省级/地方政府及NGOs 提供服务，– 正式的和非正式的 混合递送模式– 公共//NGO的资金来源于公共资源 SASSA – South African Social Assistance Agency – Care Dependency Gran, Child Support Grnt, Disability Grant, Foster Child Grant, Grants in Aid, Older Persons, Social Relief of Distress, War Veteran’s Grant

结论 无论定义如何，社会工作在社会保护中都应承担这样的角色– 社会工作者需要具备专业技能，并有资格开展预防性、促进性及转变性的社会工作与社会保护。 According to Kaseke: “to avert deprivation or to mitigate the impact of an adverse shock” (UNICEF, 2008) – community development approaches to create informal insurance and ‘shock absorbing’ systems that can gradually be formalised Social workers work with communities to promote their ability to support poor households to establish sustainable livelihoods (e.g BRAC programs) and access education for children (break the cycle of poverty) Transformative – pro-active social inclusion, addressing social injustice e.g people with disabilities and from minotiry communities… Presentation at the 1st Namibian Social Protection Conference-2015: Towards Comprehensive Social Protection for All. 7-9 July 2015, Windhoek By Professor Edwell Kaseke, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

注意事项 一般性/特殊性社会工作 (例如针对儿童或针对需要保护服务的人) 个案管理与社会行政的行政负担 与地方相关的及基于地方的实践 More expertise vs. better linkages to more holistic family/community approaches Social work requires documentation and social administration – how to ensure that social workers who have special knowledge and skills eg for working with children or with people with disaiblities, community programs, etc can use these skills rather than spend their time on administration? How to regulate /license/ accredit practitioners and services if it is difficult to define – compared for example to medicine or education – a common set of professional competencies/values/ethics etc.?