Foundations of Organizational Design 第四篇　組　織 10 組　織　設　計 Foundations of Organizational Design 各節重點 10.1 描述組織設計的六個關鍵要素 10.2 探究機械式和有機式組織架構 10.3 討論機械式和有機式組織設計的權變因子 10.4 描述傳統的組織設計 10.5 描述現今的組織設計 10.6 解釋彈性工作安排 10.7 描述現今組織設計的挑戰

10.1 設計組織架構 Designing Organizational Structure 管理領域中，組織工作與組織結構是近年改變最多的一項。 Few topics in management have undergone as much change in the past few years as that of organizing and organizational structure. 組織(organizing) 是指建立組織結構的程序，這是一個具有多重目的之重要程序。 Organizing - arranging and structuring work to accomplish an organization’s goals. 組織結構 (organizational structure) 是指關於工作任務分派、編組、協調等的正式架構。 Organizational Structure - the formal arrangement of jobs within an organization.

Exhibit 10-1: Purposes of Organizing 設計 (organizational design) 的工作，它的內容牽涉到六個關鍵因素：專業分工、部門劃分、指揮鏈、控制幅度、集權與分權以及正式化。 Organizational Design - a process involving decisions about six key elements: Work specialization Span of control Departmentalization Centralization and decentralization Chain of command Formalization Exhibit 10-1: Purposes of Organizing

專業分工 Work Specialization 專業分工 一詞是描述組織任務分工的程度。 Work Specialization — The degree to which tasks in the organization are divided into separate jobs with each step completed by a different person. 專業分工可以針對員工所擁有的不同工作技巧做更有效的運用，某些工作需要高精細度的技能，其他則否。過於專業化會導致人力不經濟如無聊，疲憊，壓力，質量差，缺勤率。 Work specialization makes efficient use of the diversity of skills that workers have. In most organizations, some tasks require highly developed skills, others can be performed by employees with lower skills levels. Overspecialization can result in human diseconomies such as boredom, fatigue, stress, poor quality, and increased absenteeism.

Exhibit 10-2: Economies and Diseconomies of Work Specialization

當代的趨勢 Today’s view 今日，大多數的管理者把專業分工視為一個重要的組織機制，而不是一個無限提高生產力的泉源。 Work specialization no longer leads to productivity. The companies such as McDonald’s, Hallmark, and American Express use minimal work specialization and instead give employees a broad range of tasks to do.

部門劃分 Departmentalization 當一個工作因為專業分工而被拆解為幾個部分後，我們需要將某些部分的工作再整合，使相同的工作能安排在一起。此種將工作再重新組合的動作即稱為部門化。 After deciding what job tasks will be done by whom, common work activities need to be grouped back together is called departmentalization.

部門劃分類型 Departmentalization by Type 功能別 Functional Grouping jobs by functions performed 地區別 Geographical Grouping jobs on the basis of territory or geography 產品別 Product Grouping jobs by product line 程序別 Process Grouping jobs on the basis of product or customer flow 客戶別 Customer Grouping jobs by type of customer and needs

當代的趨勢 Today’s view 愈來愈多的企業採用客戶別部門劃分，以更有效掌控顧客的 需求，並對顧客需求變化提出較佳的回應。 One popular departmentalization trend is the increasing use of customer departmentalization. Because getting and keeping customers is essential for success, this approach works well because it emphasizes monitoring and responding to changes in customers’ needs. 管理者讓不同領域的專家共同工作 以組成跨功能的團隊。 One specific type of team that more organizations are using is a cross-functional teams, which is a work team composed of individuals from various functional specialties.

指揮鏈 Chain of Command 指揮鏈 (Chain of Command) 代表從組織高層到基層的一條連續性職權關係，它明確指出誰該向誰報告，可協助員工解決類似當我有問題時該找誰？我該向誰負責等的問題。 Chain of Command - the continuous line of authority that extends from upper levels of an organization to the lowest levels of the organization — clarifies who reports to whom. 職權 是職位所賦予的權力，可指示屬下該做的事，與期望屬下須達成的任務。 Authority - the rights inherent in a managerial position to tell people what to do and to expect them to do it.

職權接受論，也就是職權不在發令者而在受命者。 Acceptance theory of authority is that authority comes from the willingness of subordinates to accept it. Barnard 認為部屬只有在下列情況滿足下，才會接受命令。 Barnard contended that subordinates will accept orders only if the following conditions are satisfied : 1.受命者確實已瞭解； They understand the order; 2. 合於組織目標； They feel the order is consistent with the organization’s purpose; 3. 不違背受命者權益； The order does not conflict with their personal beliefs; 4. 受命者有能力加以執行。 They are able to perform the task as directed.

直線職權是直線人員所擁有的，包括發布命令及執行決策等的權力，也就是通常所指的指揮權。 Line authority entitles a manager to direct the work of an employee.

幕僚職權是某項職位或某部門 ( 幕僚 ) 所擁有的輔助性職權。包括提供諮詢、建議等。 As organizations get larger and more complex, line managers find that they do not have the time, expertise, or resources to get their jobs done effectively. In response, they create staff authority functions to support, assist, advise, and generally reduce some of their informational burdens.

職責 Responsibility 當管理者在協調與整合員工工作時，員工有義務接受被指派的工作，此種接受指派工作的義務即為職責。 Responsibility - the obligation or expectation to perform. 指揮權統一 Unity of Command 指揮權統一原則 - 協助維持由上而下權威的連續性，亦即員工只應對一位管理者負責，即是指揮權統一。 Unity of Command - the concept that a person should have one boss and should report only to that person.

控制幅度 Span of Control 控制幅度是管理者可以有效率與有效能地指揮員工之人數。 Span of Control - the number of employees who can be effectively and efficiently supervised by a manager.

當代的趨勢 Today’s view 有很多因素會影響一位管理者有效管理的員工數目，這些因素包括員工與管理者的技能，以及工作的特性等。 Width of span is affected by: Skills and abilities of the manager Employee characteristics Characteristics of the work being done Similarity of tasks Complexity of tasks Physical proximity of subordinates Standardization of tasks Sophistication of the organization’s information system Strength of the organization’s culture Preferred style of the manager

集權與分權 Centralization & Decentralization 集權指組織的決策權掌握在單一管理者的集中程度，如最高領導者在做決策時，較少低階管理者參與其中，就稱為集權。 Centralization - the degree to which decision making is concentrated at upper levels in the organization. This is common in organizations in which top managers make all the decisions and lower-level employees simply carry out those orders. 反之，基層管理者或員工提供相關訊息或參與較多的決策時，則屬分權的組織。 Decentralization - when an organization relegates decision making to managers who are closest to the action. 員工賦權指讓員工有更多的權力作決策。 Employee Empowerment - Increasing the decision-making authority (power) of employees

Exhibit 10-7: Centralization or Decentralization Decisions are relatively minor Decisions are significant 當代的趨勢 Today’s view 為了使組織更有彈性、對外界的變化能更及時反應，業界的趨勢是朝向分權決策來發展。 As organizations have become more flexible and responsive to environment trends, there’s been a distinct shift toward decentralized decision making.

正式化 Formalization 正式化 (formalization) 是指工作標準化，以及員工遵循公司條例與標準程序而行事的程度。 Formalization - the degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized and the extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures.

機械式和有機式組織 10.2 Mechanistic and Organic Structures 機械式組織 擁有固定而嚴謹的結構。 Mechanistic organization – An organizational design that’s rigid tightly controlled. 有機式組織 具有高度的適應力與彈性。 Organic organization – An organizational design that’s highly adaptive and flexible.

10.3 影響選擇組織架構的權變因素 Contingency Factors Affecting Structure Choice 最適當的組織結構由四項權變因素決定，即組織的策略、規模大小、技術能力與環境的不確定性。 What that appropriate structure is depends on four contingency variables: the organization’s strategy, size, technology, and degree of environment uncertainty. 規模大小與結構 Size and Structure 當組織擴大，其結構傾向由有機化到機械化，並提高專業化、部門化、集權化和組織規則/法規。 As an organization grows larger, its structure tends to change from organic to mechanistic with increased specialization, departmentalization, centralization, and rules/regulations.

策略與結構 Strategy and Structure 組織結構應根據策略來設計，如管理者大幅改變組織的策略，則需要調整組織結構以因應策略的改變。 Achievement of strategic goals is facilitated by changes in organizational structure that accommodate and support change. 策略架構 Strategy Frameworks 追求創新 Innovation 追求有意義且獨特創新的公司，需要有機式組織中的彈性與資訊的自由流通。 Pursuing competitive advantage through meaningful and unique innovations favors an organic structuring. 追求成本極小化 Cost minimization 需要機械式組織中高效率、穩定而嚴格的控制。 Focusing on tightly controlling costs requires a mechanistic structure for the organization.

技術與結構 Technology and Structure 企業會改變它們的結構，以適應它們應用的技術 Woodward 根據企業運用技術的複雜度做以下之分類： 單位生產，生產數量是單個或小批量 大量生產，以大批量製造方式生產 程序生產，為技術性最高的連續生產 例行性技術 → 機械式組織 非例行性技術 → 有機式組織 Firms adapt their structures to their technology. Woodward’s classification of firms based on the complexity of the technology employed : Unit production of single units or small batches Mass production of large batches of output Process production in continuous process of outputs Routine technology → mechanistic organizations Non-routine technology → organic organizations

Woodward’s Findings on Technology and Structure Exhibit 10-8: Woodward’s Findings on Technology and Structure

環境不確定性與結構 Environmental Uncertainty and Structure 穩定而單純的環境中，機械式的結構會比較有效。 Mechanistic organizational structures tend to be most effective in stable and simple environments. 具彈性的有機式組織在動態且複雜的環境中較為合適。 The flexibility of organic organizational structures is better suited for dynamic and complex environments.

傳統的組織設計 Traditional Designs 10.4 傳統的組織設計 Traditional Designs 簡單式結構 Simple Structure 大部分組織在創業時，會採用只包含企業主與員工的簡單式結構。簡單式結構有簡略的部門、較廣的控制幅度、集中於一人的權力與較少正式化的組織設計。這種結構在企業主與管理者同為一人的小型企業中極為常見。 Simple structure — Low departmentalization, wide spans of control, centralized authority, little formalization

功能式結構 Functional Structure 功能式結構是將相似或相關工作專長的員工歸在一起的組織設計，以功能做為組織劃分部門依據。 Functional structure — Departmentalization by function Operations, finance, marketing, human resources, and product research and development 部門式結構 Divisional Structure 部門式結構是由不同的單位或事業部所組成的組織結構，在此結構中，每個獨立的單位或事業部僅有少量的自主權，而擁有決策權與經營權的事業部主管負責整個部門的績效。 Divisional structure — Composed of separate business units or divisions with limited autonomy under the coordination and control of the parent corporation.

Exhibit 10-9 : Traditional Organizational Designs

現今的組織設計 10.5 Contemporary Organizational Designs 團隊結構 Team Structure 在團隊結構中，整個組織是由許多推動業務的工作群，或團隊所組成。由於它沒有上下的階層式管理，因此充分授權對此種結構是很重要的。團隊成員可採取自認為最適合的工作方式，並為其績效負全責。 Team Structure — An organizational structure in which the entire organization is made up of work teams.

矩陣式專案結構 Matrix and Project Structure 矩陣式結構是針對一個或數個專案的需要，從不同專業功能部門中調集人手組成團隊，並由一位專案經理來領導。 Matrix Structure — An organizational structure that assigns specialists from different functional departments to work on one or more projects.

矩陣式組織的成員會有兩個頂頭上司：功能部門的經理與產 品或專案的經理，這兩位上司都有指揮權。專案經理對由功 能部門借調來的成員，有指揮的權力，但有關升遷、薪資調 整與年度考核等，則仍是功能部門主管的職責。 Employees in a matrix organization have two managers: their functional area manager and their product or project manager, who shares authority. The project manager has authority over the functional members who are part of his or her project team in areas related to the project’s goals. However, any decisions about promotion, salary recommendations, and annual reviews typically remain the functional manager’s responsibility.

專案式結構讓員工不斷在專案中工作，專案組織中成員沒有歸屬的部門。 Project Structure — An organizational structure in which employees continuously work on projects. A project structure has no formal department where employees return at the completion of a project.

無疆界組織 Boundaryless Organization 無疆界組織的特性，該組織的設計不受限於水平式、垂直式或外部邊界等原先的組織結構。 Boundaryless Organization — An organization whose design is not defined by, or limited to, the horizontal, vertical, or external boundaries imposed by a predefined structure. 虛擬組織是一個由小部分核心全職員工及臨時聘僱的外部專家所組成的組織。 Virtual Organization — An organization that consists of a small core of full-time employees and outside specialists temporarily hired as needed to work on projects.

學習型組織 Learning Organizations 網路組織是一個小的核心組織，將主要的業務功能外包出去。 Network Organization — An organization that uses its own employees to do some work activities and networks of outside suppliers to provide other needed product components or work processes. 學習型組織 Learning Organizations 學習型組織的觀念並無特別的組織設計，而只是在傳達一種會影響組織設計的思維或哲學觀念。在學習型組織中，由於每個員工都積極參與工作相關問題的發現與解決，而使組織適應與改變能力不斷提高。員工從不斷地獲得與分享新知中來實行知識管理，並將所學習的知識應用於決策和工作中。 Learning Organization — An organization that has developed the capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and change.

彈性工作安排 Flexible Work Arrangements 10.6 彈性工作安排 Flexible Work Arrangements 遠距離辦公 指的是在家工作，並用電腦與工作場所連結。 Telecommuting - a work arrangement in which employees work at home and are linked to the workplace by computer. 壓縮工作週 - 即每天工時延長，但每週上班天數減少。 Compressed workweek - a workweek where employees work longer hours per day but fewer days per week

彈性工時是一種工作設計的方案，透過給予員工對工作時間的自由裁量權，來提昇員工的工作滿意度。 Flextime (flexible work hours) – a scheduling system in which employees are required to work a specific number of hours a week but are free to vary those hours within certain limits. 工作分享指兩個或兩個以上之員工從事同一份工作，此設計之好處在於管理者針對某一個職位與工作，有更多的資源進行安排；缺點在於員工的能力差異與工作習性不同，可能導致彼此間配合產生困難。 Job sharing - the practice of having two or more people split a full-time job.

10.7 今日組織設計的挑戰 Today’s Organizational Design Challenges 維持員工間的互動 Keeping Employees Connected 管理者在組織設計上面臨的挑戰是，如何有效連結散布在世界各地的員工，又維持其工作進度，行動科技是今日維持組織與員工互動之重要關鍵。 A major structural design challenge for managers is finding away to offer flexibility but also keeping widely dispersed and mobile employees connected to the organization. Mobile computing and communication technology have given organizations and employees ways to stay connected and to be more productive. 維持資訊安全是今日組織管理之重要議題，而現代科技讓員工可以在資訊安全無虞情況下工作。 Companies must protect their important and sensitive information. Fortunately, software and other disabling devices have minimized security issues considerably.