第１章 全球化

開頭個案:醫療保健的全球化 在美國專攻判讀和說明X光、電腦斷層攝影、磁共振造影掃描及超音波等診療圖像的放射科專家和醫生發生短缺，且其需求率快速的成長兩倍之多 。 問題的解決方法：透過網路發送影像到印度讓當地的放射科專家進行判讀。

開頭個案:醫療保健的全球化 外包醫療保健會受限於放射線醫學；我們看到開始有病人至海外旅行讓人進行醫療手術 在2004年大約有170，000名外國人去印度進行治療。此種計劃每年會成長15%。 問題：那麼美國醫療服務的需求，會因為快速移到印度而衰退嗎？

市場全球化 在歷史上具有差異性及分離性的各個國家市場，整合成單一巨大的全球市場 跨國貿易障礙趨緩，使得企業更容易將產品在國際間銷售 不同國家消費者的品味與嗜好，已走向越來越相同的全球規範 公司提供世界性標準化的商品並創造一個全球性市場 This slide offers a definition of the globalization of markets trend. It also details why this has happened.

市場全球化 市場全球化的困難係來自於： 國與國之間仍存有許多的差異性 行銷策略常被要求要因地制宜 需要依當地市場的口味和偏好來變更不同國家的產品組合 Some problems occur when companies begin operating globally. These include: very significant differences still exist among national markets along many relevant dimensions, including consumer tastes and preferences, distribution channels, culturally embedded value systems, business systems, and legal regulations. These differences frequently require that marketing strategies, product features, and operating practices be customized to best match conditions in a country. For example, automobile companies will promote different car models depending on a range of factors such as local fuel costs, income levels, traffic congestion, and cultural values. Similarly, many companies need to vary aspects of their product mix and operations from country to country depending on local tastes and preferences.

市場全球化 許多全球化市場，通常不會是消費品市場 大部分的全球市場是提供全世界需要的工業品及原料的市場 在許多的全球市場中，相同的企業經常在國與國之間相互競爭 The most global markets currently are not markets for consumer products—where national differences in tastes and preferences are still often important enough to act as a brake on globalization—but markets for industrial goods and materials that serve a universal need the world over. These include the markets for commodities such as aluminum, oil, and wheat; the markets for industrial products such as microprocessors, DRAMs (computer memory chips), and commercial jet aircraft; the markets for computer software; and the markets for financial assets from U.S. Treasury bills to eurobonds and futures on the Nikkei index or the Mexican peso.

生產全球化 生產全球化係指企業利用全球各地國際間生產要素，成本及品質的差異，來獲取商品及服務 生產要素的差異包括： 勞工 土地 資本 企業希望全面降低其成本結構，改善品質及改善他們所提供產品的功能，使其在競爭上更具有效率 The globalization of production refers to the sourcing of goods and services from locations around the globe to take advantage of national differences in the cost and quality of factors of production (such as labor, energy, land, and capital). By doing this, companies hope to lower their overall cost structure and/or improve the quality or functionality of their product offering, thereby allowing them to compete more effectively.

生產全球化 過去非常明顯的外包作業被限制在製造業 愈來愈多公司利用現代通訊科技，特別是利用網際網路來降低外包至其他國家的費用 例如：網際網路可使醫院將放射線的研究結果外包至印度 As we saw in the Opening Case, the Internet has allowed hospitals to outsource some radiology work to India, where images from MRI scans and the like are read at night while U.S. physicians sleep, and are the results are ready for them in the morning. Similarly, in December 2003, IBM announced it would move the work of some 4,300 software engineers from the United States to India and China (software production is counted as a service activity).

生產全球化 委外給不同供應商的生產活動，導致了產品是全球性的，也就是「全球性產品」 生產全球化的實質障礙包括 各國間正式和非正式的貿易阻礙 海外直接投資障礙 運輸成本的阻礙 相關的經濟風險 相關的政治風險 Robert Reich, who served as secretary of labor in the Clinton administration, has argued that as a consequence of the trend exemplified by companies such as Boeing, Microsoft, and IBM, in many cases it is becoming irrelevant to talk about American products, Japanese products, German products, or Korean products. But as with the globalization of markets, one must be careful not to push the globalization of production too far. As we will see in later chapters, substantial impediments still make it difficult for firms to achieve the optimal dispersion of their productive activities to locations around the globe

全球機構的興起 隨著市場全球化以及國家之間的貿易量逐漸增加，全球化的市場必須有一個體制來進行管理、規範、制訂政策 關稅及貿易總協定 〈GATT〉 世界貿易組織(WTO) 國際貨幣基金(IMF) 世界銀行〈World bank〉 聯合國(UN) As markets globalize and an increasing proportion of business activity transcends national borders, there is a need for institutions to help manage, regulate, and police the global marketplace, and to promote the establishment of multinational treaties to govern the global business system. Over the past half century, a number of important global institutions have been created to help perform these functions.

全球化的驅動力 有二大宏觀的因素是推動全球化趨勢的原動力 在二次大戰後，商品、勞務和資本自由流通的阻礙減低 科技變革：特別是最近幾年，在通訊、電信及運輸技術有顯著的改變

貿易及投資障礙的減輕 在1920年代到1930年代間，許多國家在全球各地豎立了很多國際貿易及海外直接投資的障礙 國際貿易： 指一國的企業出口商品或勞務至另一個國家 海外直接投資：指一個企業在海外將資源投資於企業的生產活動 在二次大戰後，擁有先進企業體的西方國家們，承諾消除障礙，使商品、勞務及資本在各國間可以自由移動 除了降低貿易障礙外，有很多國家更積極地撤除對FDI的限制

製成品平均關稅稅率 1913 1950 1990 2002 法國 21 % 18 % 5.9 % 4.0 % 德國 20 % 26 % 義大利 25 % 日本 30 % -- 5.3 % 3.8 % 荷蘭 5 % 1 % 瑞典 9 % 4.4 % 英國 % 美國 44 % 14 % 4.8 % Under the umbrella of GATT, eight rounds of negotiations among member states (now numbering 148) have worked to lower barriers to the free flow of goods and services. The most recent round of negotiations, known as the Uruguay Round, was completed in December 1993. The Uruguay Round further reduced trade barriers; extended GATT to cover services as well as manufactured goods; provided enhanced protection for patents, trademarks, and copyrights; and established the World Trade Organization (WTO) to police the international trading system. Table 1.1 summarizes the impact of GATT agreements on average tariff rates for manufactured goods. As can be seen, average tariff rates have fallen significantly since 1950 and now stand at about 4.0 percent.

貿易障礙降低的影響 According to data from the World Trade Organization, the volume of world merchandise trade has grown faster than the world economy since 1950 (see figure 1.1). From 1970 to 2004, the volume of world merchandise trade expanded almost 26-fold, outstripping world production, which grew about 7.5 times in real terms. (World merchandise trade includes trade in manufactured goods, agricultural goods and mining products, but not services. World production and trade are measured in real, or inflation-adjusted, dollars.) As suggested by Figure 1.1, due to falling barriers to cross-border trade and investment, the growth in world trade seems to have accelerated since the early 1980s.

成長趨勢 As shown in Figure 1.2, between 1992 and 2004 the total flow of FDI from all countries increased by about 360 percent, while world trade doubled and world output grew by 35 percent. As a result of the strong FDI flow, by 2003 the global stock of FDI exceeded $8.1 trillion. In total, at least 61,000 parent companies had 900,000 affiliates in foreign markets that collectively employed some 54 million people abroad and generated value accounting for about one-tenth of global GDP. The foreign affiliates of multinationals had an estimated $17.6 trillion in global sales, nearly twice as high as the value of global exports of goods and service combined, which stood at $9.2 trillion

科技變革的角色 貿易障礙的消除，使得市場和生產的全球化成為可能，而科技的變革增添了全球化的真實性 自從二次大戰結束後，全世界在下列科技上都有很大的進展： 通訊 資訊處理 運輸科技 The lowering of trade barriers made globalization of markets and production a theoretical possibility. Technological change has made it a tangible reality. Since the end of World War II, the world has seen major advances in communication, information processing, and transportation technology, including the explosive emergence of the Internet and World Wide Web. Telecommunications is creating a global audience. Transport is creating a global village. From Buenos Aires to Boston, and from Birmingham to Beijing, ordinary people are watching MTV, they’re wearing blue jeans, and they’re listening to iPod’s as they commute to work.

網路使用率的成長 The rapid growth of the Internet and the associated World Wide Web (which utilizes the Internet to communicate between World Wide Web sites) is the latest expression of communication technology development. In 1990, fewer than 1 million users were connected to the Internet. By 1995 the figure had risen to 50 million. In 2004 it grew to about 945 million. By 2007, forecasts suggest the Internet may have more than 1.47 billion users, or about 25 percent of the world’s population. In July 1993, some 1.8 million host computers were connected to the Internet (host computers host the Web pages of local users). By January 2005, the number of host computers had increased to 317 million, and the number is still growing rapidly. In the United States, where Internet usage is most advanced, almost 60 percent of the population was using the Internet by 2003 (see figure 1.3). Worldwide the figure was 15 percent and growing fast. The Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) promise to develop into the information backbone of the global economy.

全球經濟統計資料的改變 變動中的世界產出和世界貿易 變動中的海外直接投資 變動中的多國籍企業 2004年美國佔世界產出的21% ，其相對規模即顯著的下降 在1963年至2004年期間，中國的世界產出佔有率從舉無輕重，增加到13.2% 2004年美國製成品在世界出口的佔有率已經降至10.4% 變動中的海外直接投資 美國實際上的總存量從1980年的38% 衰退到2004年的30% 90年代間跨國境的國外直接投資流動方面的持續增長，開發中國家的新興重要性成為國外直接投資的終點站 變動中的多國籍企業 Hand in hand with the trend toward globalization has been a fairly dramatic change in the demographics of the global economy over the past 30 years. As late as the 1960s, four stylized facts described the demographics of the global economy. The first was U.S. dominance in the world economy and world trade picture. The second was U.S. dominance in world foreign direct investment. Related to this, the third fact was the dominance of large, multinational U.S. firms on the international business scene. The fourth was that roughly half the globe—the centrally planned economies of the Communist World—were off-limits to Western international businesses

全球化的爭論 贊成因素 反對因素 使得商品及勞務價格下降 刺激經濟成長 提高消費者所得 創造就業機會 國家專業化在商品與勞務的生產，使得生產更有效率 反對因素 對於富有的經濟大國的製造業的工作機會實際上是有害的 在先進國家的非技術工人的工資率下滑 公司移至缺乏勞工保護和環境管制的國家 國家主權的喪失 The past quarter century has seen rapid changes in the global economy. Barriers to the free flow of goods, services, and capital have been coming down. The volume of cross-border trade and investment has been growing more rapidly than global output, indicating that national economies are becoming more closely integrated into a single, interdependent, global economic system. As their economies advance, more nations are joining the ranks of the developed world. But it is always hazardous to use established trends to predict the future. The world may be moving toward a more global economic system, but globalization is not inevitable. Countries may pull back from the recent commitment to liberal economic ideology if their experiences do not match their expectations. Also, greater globalization brings with it risks of its own. This was starkly demonstrated in 1997 and 1998 when a financial crisis in Thailand spread first to other East Asian nations and then in 1998 to Russia and Brazil. Ultimately the crisis threatened to plunge the economies of the developed world, including the United States, into a recession. This slide outlines some of the arguments from the great globalization debate.

管理全球市場 本書關心的是國際企業的管理問題。國際企業(international business)是指從事國際貿易或投資的任何企業 管理一個國際企業與管理一個單純的國內企業是不同的，理由至少有四個： 各國皆存在差異性 跟國內企業管理者相比較起來，國際企業管理者面對的問題較廣泛，也較複雜 一個國際企業的管理者，面對各國政府對國際貿易與投資的干預，必須尋求一套解決方法 國際交易涉及到不同貨幣的兌換問題

下一章重點 第二章：各國政治經濟的差異 政治制度 經濟制度 法律制度 經濟發展的決定因素 各國情況的轉變 管理涵義