二次大戰對科學地位的影響 第4單元:第四講:二次大戰對科學地位的影響 【本著作除另有註明外,採取創用CC「姓名標示-非商業性-相同方式分享」台灣2.5版授權釋出】
二次大戰後,原子彈、氫彈的出現,讓世界各國開始意識到科學的重要,科學的發展能讓國家贏得戰爭,甚至改變歷史。 國家政策開始編列預算,支持科學的研究和發展。
二次大戰前的科學 雖然早在17世紀後,科學就已開始發展,但在二次大戰前的科學家,多半不受重視,缺乏研究的經費支持。 只有第一流、最頂尖的科學家才能受到大家的重視,獲得經費及相關資源的支持。 Ex:愛因斯坦的推薦信。
Einstein to Born If, just once, I slip up and recommend a second-rate physicist,I shall lose all my influence and shall no longer be able to help anybody. I am painfully aware that I behave like a horse-trader, praising my wares, pointing out the fine teeth and the brisk pace. The Quantum Generation M.Ryutova-Kemoklidze
戰前的原子核物理研究 放射線、放射性元素(1895) Wilhelm Roentgen, Henri Becquerel, etc。 原子核 Ernest Rutherford 提出原子模型。 電子(1897) J. J. Thomson獲得諾貝爾獎。 中子(1932) James Chadwick。 微中子鮑利、王淦昌。
發現電子,獲諾貝爾獎 顛覆原子是最小的概念 Ernest Rutherford 提出原子模型
Ernest Rutherford publishes his atomic theory describing the atom as having a central positive nucleus surrounded by negative orbiting electrons. This model suggested that most of the mass of the atom was contained in the small nucleus, and that the rest of the atom was mostly empty space. Rutherford came to this conclusion following the results of his famous gold foil experiment. This experiment involved the firing of radioactive particles through minutely thin metal foils (notably gold) and detecting them using screens coated with zinc sulfide (a scintillator). Rutherford found that although the vast majority of particles passed straight through the foil approximately 1 in 8000 were deflected leading him to his theory that most of the atom was made up of 'empty space‘.
戰前的原子核物理研究 放射線、放射性元素(1895) Wilhelm Roentgen, Henri Becquerel, etc。 原子核 Ernest Rutherford 提出原子模型。 電子(1897) J. J. Thomson獲得諾貝爾獎。 中子(1932) James Chadwick。 微中子鮑利、王淦昌。
戰前的原子核物理研究 放射線、放射性元素(1895) Wilhelm Roentgen, Henri Becquerel, etc。 原子核 Ernest Rutherford 提出原子模型。 電子(1897) J. J. Thomson獲得諾貝爾獎。 中子(1932) James Chadwick。 微中子鮑利、王淦昌。
James Chadwick發現不帶電的中子
王淦昌:在德國曾提出後來導致中子 發現的實驗建議。後來在抗日戰爭期間 曾提出發現微中子的構想。 Bettina Katzenstein / ETH Zürich 鮑利(W.Pauli)最早提出微中子存在的理論假設, 但一直不肯發表,後來是費米(E.Fermi)將此粒子 定名為Neutrino。 鮑利的名言: I am Smarter than Dirac 。 王淦昌:在德國曾提出後來導致中子 發現的實驗建議。後來在抗日戰爭期間 曾提出發現微中子的構想。
中子撞擊的研究 科學的發展在找尋物質最小的結構。 羅馬:費米 Enrico Fermi。 巴黎:Irene Joliot-Curie, Fredeic Joliot(居禮夫人的女兒和女婿)。 柏林:哈恩 Otto Hahn, Friz Strassmann,麥特勒 Lise Meitner(德國的居禮夫人之稱), Otto Frisch。 王淦昌 (微中子)
費米 Enrico Fermi
中子撞擊的研究 科學的發展在找尋物質最小的結構。 羅馬:費米 Enrico Fermi。 巴黎:Irene Joliot-Curie, Fredeic Joliot(居禮夫人的女兒和女婿)。 柏林:哈恩 Otto Hahn, Friz Strassmann,麥特勒 Lise Meitner(德國的居禮夫人之稱), Otto Frisch。 王淦昌 (微中子)
Joliot-Curie, Irene; Curie, Marie Frédéric Joliot-Curie Irene Juliot-Curie Joliot-Curie, Irene; Curie, Marie
中子撞擊的研究 科學的發展在找尋物質最小的結構。 羅馬:費米 Enrico Fermi。 巴黎:Irene Joliot-Curie, Fredeic Joliot(居禮夫人的女兒和女婿)。 柏林:哈恩 Otto Hahn, Friz Strassmann,麥特勒 Lise Meitner(德國的居禮夫人之稱), Otto Frisch。 王淦昌 (微中子)
哈恩 Otto Hahn
Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in their laboratory In 1938 Otto Hahn (1879-1968), Lise Meitner (1878-1968), and Fritz Strassmann (1902-1980) were the first to recognize that the uranium atom under bombardment by neutrons, actually split. With doctorate in hand. 在德國柏林的威廉皇帝研究院 在伯裡威廉皇帝研究院 發現鈾元素 Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in their laboratory
Otto Hahn 哈恩獲得諾貝爾獎 右為 Lise Meitner Otto hahn and Lise Meitner Lise Meitner麥特勒 有德國的居禮夫人之稱 受到忽視的偉大女科學家
核分裂
超鈾元素--核分裂的發現 It Seems to me that the human mind sees only it expects. --- Emilio Segre 人類的心智只會看到他所期待看到的! 科學的認知,是要先有個概念才會看得見、才會有發現。 科學的本質:主觀認定、客觀發現。
曼哈頓(原子彈)計畫 原子彈計畫的開始 齊拉 Leo Szilard, Albert Einstein 寫信給美國小羅斯福總統。 曼哈頓計畫 Leslie Groves 軍方負責人。 Robert Oppenheimer 總負責人。 1942年開始,兩年後便研究成功!
Einstein and Szilard ,
Leo Szilard
Robert Oppenheimer Archivo importado por oszalal Major General Leslie R. Groves, in charge of the Manhattan Project, 1942
二次大戰原子彈發展和計畫的詳細紀錄 Hans Bethe(1906-2005)
領導人物:費米 地點:芝加哥大學 時間:1942/12/2 第一個核子反應器(堆) 領導人物:費米 地點:芝加哥大學 時間:1942/12/2 The first nuclear reactor was erected in 1942 in the West Stands section of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago. In 1943 it was dismantled and reassembled at the Palos Park unit of the Argonne National Laboratory.
Chicago Pile One scientists at the University of Chicago on December 2, 1946, the fourth anniversary of their success. Back row( left to right), Norman Hilberry, Samuel Allison, Thomas Brill, Robert G. Nobles, Warren Nyer, and Marvin Wilkening. Middle row, Harold Agnew, William Sturm, Harold Lichtenberger, Leona W. Marshall, and Leo Szilard. Front row, Enrico Fermi, Walter H. Zinn, Albert Wattenberg, and Herbert L. Anderson.
Enrico Fermi
「黑洞」 Hans Bethe
J. Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, and Ernest Lawrence
爆炸完後的廢墟 頭一顆原子彈試爆高塔,新墨西哥州
-----.歐本海默目睹原子彈首次試爆成功 引用印度經典著作”薄伽梵歌”中一句話 我變成了死神,世界的毀滅者 -----.歐本海默目睹原子彈首次試爆成功 引用印度經典著作”薄伽梵歌”中一句話
第一顆原子彈 (1945/7/16) 美國與日本的戰爭 雙方的實力有差距,美國想要藉著原子彈攻擊結束戰爭,出現兩種看法: 1. 攻擊無人島。 2. 直接攻擊本島,要死傷慘重才有 威嚇性(警告其他國家)。 廣島 小男孩。 長崎 胖子。
(左)小男孩:鈾原料原子彈 (右)胖子:鈽原料原子彈 轟炸廣島的第一代原子彈—小男孩 (左)小男孩:鈾原料原子彈 (右)胖子:鈽原料原子彈
Fanghong
Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2008 Prolineserver Prolineserver Prolineserver Osamu Shimomura 下村脩 Roger Y. Tsien 錢永健 Martin Chalfie 下村脩 : 沒有被原子彈炸死的人,但眼睛瞎了好幾個禮拜。 "As a teenager, Osamu Shimomura was blinded for several weeks by the atomic bombing of Nagasaki."
仁科芳雄
荒勝文策 日據時代台北帝國大學 (即台灣大學前身) 的「物理學講座」,首位講座教授為荒勝文策博士 (Arakatsu Bunsaku),荒勝文策與仁科芳雄年歲相仿,同為日本物理史的領袖人物。荒勝文策博士來台後,在台北帝國大學完成一座 Cockcroft-Walton 加速器,是當時亞州是最先進的研究設備之一。1934 年,荒勝文策博士的團隊在台北帝國大學的二號館 101 室架設完成了 240 Kev 直流高壓加速器,同年七月 25 五日成功完成了以人工加速粒子撞擊原子核的實驗,是繼 1932 年英國劍橋大學 Cavendish Laboratory (培養了 25 個諾貝爾獎得主) 之後,世界第二個完成人工撞擊原子核的實驗團隊。
德國的計畫 Weiner Heisenberg ALSOS (glove in Greek) Samuel Goudsmit Operation Epsilon Farm Hall Transcripts
Hitler's physicists were behind the Allies in developing nuclear power
Werner Heisenberg (centre) with colleagues in 1927.
Ehrenfest's students, Leiden 1924. Left to right:Gerhard Heinrich Dieke,Samuel Abraham Goudsmit Jan tinbergen ,Paul Ehrenfest , Dalph Kronig and Erico Fermi
德國的計畫 Weiner Heisenberg ALSOS (glove in Greek) Samuel Goudsmit Operation Epsilon Farm Hall Transcripts
Alsos member Goudsmit, Wardenburg, Welsh and Cecil Courtesy of the United States Army
德國的計畫 Weiner Heisenberg ALSOS (glove in Greek) Samuel Goudsmit Operation Epsilon Farm Hall Transcripts
Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), commonly known as MI6 Farm Hall, a wiretaped house in Godmanchester (near Cambridge)
German scientists kept at The Farm Hall Erich Bagge Kurt Diebner Walther Gerlach Otto Hahn Paul Harteck Werner Heisenberg Horst Korsching Max von Laue Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker Karl Wirtz
臺灣新聞智慧網 中國時報全文影像 日期:890717 標題:哥本哈根和原子彈的秘密 作者:江才健 版序:37 版名:人間副刊
R.Oppenheimer Henry Truman Don’t you bring that fellow aroud again, After all,all he did was made the bomb, I am the guy who fired it off. Mr President, I have blood on my hands.
戰後的發展 氫彈 蘇聯 英國 法國 中國
氫彈的製造 1.fusion核融合反應,高溫之下才能造成。 2.利用核反應的爆炸產生能量,再引發一次氫彈的爆炸。 Helium Tritium 氫彈的製造 1.fusion核融合反應,高溫之下才能造成。 2.利用核反應的爆炸產生能量,再引發一次氫彈的爆炸。
Edward Teller
Teller 匈牙利科學家 芝加哥大學 楊振寧的老師 氫彈之父
美國蘇聯英國法國中國的核武發展 國家 原子彈 氫彈 美國 1945 7 16 1952 10 31 國家 原子彈 氫彈 美國 1945 7 16 1952 10 31 蘇聯 1949 8 29 1955 11 22 英國 1952 10 3 1957 11 8 法國 1960 2 13 1968 8 24 中國 1964 10 16 1967 6 17
Andrei Sakharov
江才健老師
傑出科學家:王淦昌,晚年投入中國大陸核融合科學計畫 重要的科學家:王淦昌 晚年作了很多核融合計畫 百度百科 guangyang1027 傑出科學家:王淦昌,晚年投入中國大陸核融合科學計畫
向幾位熟識的物理學家致敬 黄昆(1919-2005) 彭桓武 (1915-2007) 王淦昌(1907-1998)
1986年,北京,杨振宁(右)到医院看望病中的鄧稼先(左)。
美國蘇聯英國法國中國的核武發展 國家 原子彈 氫彈 美國 1945 7 16 1952 10 31 國家 原子彈 氫彈 美國 1945 7 16 1952 10 31 蘇聯 1949 8 29 1955 11 22 英國 1952 10 3 1957 11 8 法國 1960 2 13 1968 8 24 中國 1964 10 16 1967 6 17
後續發展核武的國家 以色列:猶太人科學家、生存壓力大。 南非:謠傳台灣從南非進口鈾礦。 印度:與日本同為被壓抑的大國。 巴基斯坦。 北韓。 伊朗。 致力於研發準確的彈道系統,以及將飛彈縮小的技術。 打破了核子俱樂部的恐怖平衡。
國家 彈頭數量 (活躍/總數)* 首次核試 年份 不擴散核武條約中的五個核武國家 美國 5,735/9,960 1945 俄羅斯(前蘇聯) 5,830/16,000 1949 英國 <200 1952 法國 350] 1960 中國 400] 1964 其他已知核武國家 印度 40-50 1974 巴基斯坦 30-52 1998 間接承認擁有核武的國家 以色列 75-200 未知
台灣的核武發展 被壓抑、被限制。 蔣經國總統時期的研發。 發展核武到底有沒有用? 贊成意見? 反對意見?
"We scientists, whose tragic destiny it has been to help make the methods of annihilation ever more gruesome and more effective, must consider it our solemn and transcendent duty to do all in our power in preventing these weapons from being used.... What task could possibly be more important to us?"
科學家的榮耀和噩夢 二次大戰後,因為核子武器的發展,使科學家的開始受到重視,他們擁有無上的榮耀,同時卻也遭受了榮耀之後帶來的噩夢。 榮耀:製造威力強大的武器,擁有贏得戰爭和改變歷史的力量。 噩夢:核武帶來更可怕的戰爭,遭受心理壓力和對世界和平的責任感。
The Bulletin of Atomic Scientists' "Doomsday Clock" reads seven minutes to midnight, indicating how close the world is to a “Second Nuclear Age.”
紐約時報記者 William Laurence William Laurence was born in Lithuania in 1888. As a young man he developed radical political opinions and in 1905 he was forced to flee from Russia. Laurence moved to the United States and eventually became a science reporter for several leading newspapers and magazines in the country. Laurence had the ability to translate the complexities of modern science into articles that could be understood by the general public. He had good contacts with the world's leading scientists and in 1940 began writing articles about nuclear research for the New York Times and the Saturday Evening Post. Laurence argued that in future small quantities of U-235, would propel an ocean liner, heat and light entire cities and set off a destructive bomb blast that was equivalent of twenty thousand tons of TNT. After Pearl Harbor Laurence noticed that scientists in the United States working in this field began to refuse to talk to him. He became convinced that the Allies were involved in a secret atom bomb project. This was confirmed in the summer of 1942 when the United States Office of Censorship wrote to him asking him not to write articles on the potential of nuclear power. In April 1945 Laurence was contacted by General Leslie Groves, head of the Manhattan Project. Groves told Laurence about the Project and recruited him to become the official chronicler of the development of the atom bomb. For the next three months he was allowed to interview the scientists working on the project and prepare the press releases needed when this new weapon was used. Laurence witnessed the first test explosion of an atomic bomb in the desert near Alamogordo, New Mexico. He also inter-Viewed the crew that took part in the raid on Hiroshima and was on the plane that dropped the atom bomb on Nagasaki. Articles published by Laurence in the New York Times in 1945 won him the Pulitzer Prize. William Laurence died in 1977. democracynow.org http:// http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWlaurence.htm
Article written by William Laurence about the bombing Nagasaki appeared in several newspapers in August 1945. We are on our way to bomb the mainland of Japan. Our flying contingent consists of three specially designed B-29 Superforts, and two of these carry no bombs. But our lead plane is on its way with another atomic bomb, the second in three days, concentrating its active substance, and explosive energy equivalent to 20,000, and under favorable conditions, 40,000 tons of TNT. We have several chosen targets. One of these is the great industrial and shipping center of Nagasaki, on the western shore of Kyushu, one of the main islands of the Japanese homeland. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWnagasaki.htm
作品 授權條件 作者/來源 第4頁文字部分 M.Ryutova-Kemoklidze,«The Quantum Generation»,1995。 / http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ernest_Rutherford_(Nobel).png 2010/11/10 Nobel foundation http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:JJ_Thomson_(Nobel).jpg Royal Society of Chemistry http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/timeline//pages/1911.html 2010/12/13 First World War.com http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:J.J_Thomson.jpg
Kenosis at en.wikipedia 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 APS News http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/explosion/APS_back_page.html Kenosis at en.wikipedia http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chadwick.jpg 2010/11/10 Bettina Katzenstein / ETH Zürich http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wolfgang_Pauli_ETH-Bib_Portr_01042.jpg WIKI / http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/File:Wang_Ganchang_early_1950s.jpg 2010/11/13 Department of Energy. Office of Public Affairs http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg http://photos.aip.org/searchResult2.jsp?item_id=Joliot-Curie%20Irene%20C13&fname=joliotcurie_irene_c13.jpg&title=null&description=L-R:%20Irene%20Joliot-Curie,%20Marie%20Curie,%20From%20the%20book:%20%20'Atoms,%20men%20and%20stars%20:%20a%20survey%20of%20the%20latest%20developments%20of%20physical%20science%20and%20their%20relation%20to%20life'%20by%20Rogers%20D.%20Rusk...,%20New%20York%20;%20London%20:%20A.A.%20Knopf,%201937.&credit=Acme%20Photo,%20courtesy%20AIP%20Emilio%20Segre%20Visual%20Archives&photoDate=null&storePublished=Y&color=N&names=Joliot-Curie,%20Irene;%20Curie,%20Marie&contactID=null 2010/12/13
Department of Energy. Office of Public Affairs. 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 http://mysucculentrevolution.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/hsirenej.jpg 2010/12/13 nobelprize.org http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.html 2010/11/15 Department of Energy. Office of Public Affairs. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Otto_Hahn_und_Lise_Meitner.jpg Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lise_Meitner_1906,_Viena.jpg http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/lifestyle/books/the-german-genius-by-peter-watson-14977757.html 2011/1/25 DEUTSCHES HISTORISCHES MUSEUM http://www.dhm.de/lemo/objekte/pict/meitnbio/index.html atomicarchive.com http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fission/Fission1.shtml 2010/12/17
University of Glamorgan 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 University of Glamorgan http://scicomm.research.glam.ac.uk/projects/current/ 2010/11/15 U.S. Department of Energy http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Leo_Szilard.jpg US DOE http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Robert_Oppenheimer_1946.jpg Archivo importado por oszalal http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MajorLeslieRGroves.gif 2010/11/20 Nobel foundation http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bethe.jpg Richard Rhode The Making of the Atomic Bomb Melvin A. Miller of the Argonne National Laboratory http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Stagg_Field_reactor.jpg
U.S. Department of Energy http://www.energy.gov/about/trinitysite.htm 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 &圖片說明 atomicarchive.com http://www.atomicarchive.com/Photos/CP1/image5.shtml 2010/11/20 Lex1026 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fermi.jpg photos.aip.org http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bethe_hans.jpg olive-drab http://www.olive-drab.com/od_nuclear_manhattan.php 互動百科 http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E8%98%91%E8%8F%87%E4%BA%91 2010/12/13 U.S. Department of Energy http://www.energy.gov/about/trinitysite.htm AJ SOFTWARE & MULTIMEDIA http://www.trinityremembered.com/history/g5_p2.html
WIKI user: Films addicted 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 U.S. military http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Einstein_oppenheimer.jpg 2010/12/13 WIKI user: Films addicted http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fat_man_and_little_boy.jpg 2010/11/20 United States Department of Energy http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Little_boy.jpg vBulletin Solutions, Inc http://engforum.pravda.ru/showthread.php?283676-The-Atom-Bomb-Hoax-and-more-jewish-lies/page4 http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fat_man.jpg drawn by User:Fastfission http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Implosion_Nuclear_weapon.png U.S. Department of Energy http://www.cfo.doe.gov/me70/manhattan/images/MissionMapLarge.gif
(Automated conversion) at en.wikipedia 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 (Automated conversion) at en.wikipedia http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tibbets-wave.jpg 2010/11/18 AJ SOFTWARE & MULTIMEDIA http://www.hiroshima-remembered.com/photos/hiroshima/image3.html 2010/11/20 http://www.atomicarchive.com/Photos/Hiroshima/image1.shtml University of Wisconsin http://whyfiles.org/020radiation/ blog-city http://tabacco.blog-city.com/plan_to_end_war__capital_punishment_sanctioned_murders_in_th_1.htm 2010/12/13 Fanghong http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Japan_Hiroshima_ABomb.jpg Prolineserver (talk) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Osamu_Shimomura-press_conference_Dec_06th,_2008-2.jpg
The National Science Museum, Tokyo. 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 Prolineserver (talk) http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Chalfie-press_conference_Dec_07th,_2008-2.jpg 2010/11/18 http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/File:Roger_Tsien-press_conference_Dec_07th,_2008-2.jpg http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A1%E3%82%A4%E3%83%AB:Yoshio_Nishina.JPG 2010/11/19 The National Science Museum, Tokyo. http://www.kahaku.go.jp/event/2005/nisina/index.html 2010/12/17 http://museum.phys.ntu.edu.tw/a/a02.php 第48頁文 http://blog.linux.org.tw/~jserv/archives/001403.html 2010/12/29 BBC NEWS http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/england/cambridgeshire/3127222.stm
Hibbing Community College 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 BBC NEWS http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/england/cambridgeshire/3127222.stm 2010/11/19 Paul Ehrenfest http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ehrenfeststudents.jpg Hibbing Community College http://www.hcc.mnscu.edu/chem/abomb/page_id_34573.html National Archives http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FarmHallLarge.jpg 2010/12/13 Cleveland State University http://net.ulib.csuohio.edu/scripts/blog/index.php?title=F 臺灣新聞智慧網 中國時報全文影像 日期:890717 標題:哥本哈根和原子彈的秘密 作者:江才健 版序:37 版名:人間副刊 dongjianti http://www.wretch.cc/blog/dongjianti/9077478
Los Alamos National Laboratory 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 Los Alamos National Laboratory http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oppenheimer_Los_Alamos_portrait.jpg 2010/11/20 United States Army Signal Corps http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harry-truman.jpg AJ Software & Multimedia http://www.atomicarchive.com/Fusion/Fusion1.shtml 2010/12/17 Nuclear Age Peace Foundation http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edwardteller.jpg 2010/12/13 WIKI / http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_Teller_(later_years).jpg FrontPageMagazine http://frontpagemag.com/2010/10/14/the-life-and-thought-of-andrei-sakharov/ AMAZON http://www.amazon.com/Klaus-Fuchs-Robert-Chadwell-Williams/dp/0674505077 2010/12/10
The reporter http://reporter.leeds.ac.uk/504/news.htm 2010/12/10 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 The reporter http://reporter.leeds.ac.uk/504/news.htm 2010/12/10 AMAZON http://www.amazon.com/China-Builds-Studies-International-Security/dp/0804718415 江才健老師 百度百科 guangyang1027 http://baike.baidu.com/image/1899a23e7f54f8bb828b1380 2010/11/19 WIKI http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/File:Wang_Ganchang_early_1950s.jpg 2010/12/13 百度百科 正诚 http://baike.baidu.com/image/21e558230b7eb5419822edb9 2010/11/20 百度百科 MSC_FOREVER http://baike.baidu.com/image/245e8bca54c3b8c5c91768eb
American Institute of Physics 作品 授權條件 作者/來源 百度百科: ArthasJaina http://baike.baidu.com/album/3704/211937.html 2010/12/13 American Institute of Physics http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/ae45.htm 2010/11/29 wikipedia http://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/File:Doomsday-clock.jpg 2010/11/18 democracynow.org http://www.democracynow.org/2005/8/5/hiroshima_cover_up_stripping_the_war 2010/11/20 第80頁文 http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWlaurence.htm 2010/12/29 第81頁文 http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWnagasaki.htm