楼建波 博士 北京大学法学院房地产法中心中方主任、副教授

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楼建波 博士 北京大学法学院房地产法中心中方主任、副教授 专题四 英美不动产权利概揽 楼建波 博士 北京大学法学院房地产法中心中方主任、副教授

计划 土地所有制 英国不动产渊源 普通法原则:英美不动产的基础 衡平法对普通法的影响 成文法对普通法的简化 英国普通法对土地及其附着物处理的复杂规则 总结

土地所有制 英美土地制度的基础是土地私有制 在土地私有制下,国家也可以享有土地上的权利,但这种权利和其他个人和组织享有的各种权利并没有很大的区别,如果有,可能只是国家一般为公共利益而持有土地上权利 国家基于其公权力,有权征用土地,并对所有土地的利用进行规划 (“发展权”) “公用地”制度

英国不动产法渊源 普通法:主要在漫长的封建时代形成,适应封建土地制度的需要。 衡平法: 不象普通法一样全面调整土地关系,主要是通过对普通法规则的修正,以适应工商业的需要。 成文法:最早的成文法可以回溯到1285年。1925年以后的立法是对普通法和衡平法的总结和发展,主要集中在租赁、土地使用的公共控制,以及土地权属登记制度的建立方面。现行有效的主要法规都是1925年通过,1926年1月1号生效的(后经补充和修改): Settled Land Act; Trustee Act; Law of Property Act; Land Registration Act; Land Charges Act; Administration of Estates Act.

普通法原则:英美不动产法的基础 The Doctrine of Tenure:地产保有原则 Feudalism: often thought to represent the history of Western Europe from the eighth to the fourteenth century. To a lawyer, feudalism represents: A state of society in which the main social bond is the relation between lord and man, a relation implying on the lord’s part protection and defense; on the man’s part protection, service and reverence, the service including service in arms. This personal relation is in separately involved in a proprietary relation, the tenure of land-the man holds of the lord, the man’s service is a burden on the land, the lord has important rights in the land.—Maitland, Constitutional History of England, p. 143. 这种封建制使得土地成了联结人与人之间关系的唯一纽带。Conversion from ownership to tenure. Land Tenure in England: The person whom we may call the owner, the person who has the right to use and abuse the land, to cultivate it or leave it uncultivated, to keep all others off it, holds the land of the King either immediately or mediatory.—Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law (2nd edn), vol. i. p. 237. 英国爱德华一世时的地产保有种类 (见下页)

Peking University Center for Real Estate Law

接上页 Tenures Abolition Act 1660 改革后,只剩下Socage Tenure(农役保有),高级官员的Sergeanty Tenure(侍君保有),和Copyhold(非自由役保有) 1925年法律改革前的土地保有状况 大部分英格兰的土地属于Socage Tenure (农役保有),Copyhold (非自由役保有)成为土地保有的第二种主要方式,剩下的土地或者是grand sergeanty (大侍君役保有),或者是frankalmoin (自由教役保有),或者属于习惯法上的(gavelkind)肯特君土地保有习惯、(ancient demesne)古地自保、(borough-English)幼子优先继承地产。 The Law of Property Acts 1922 and 1925 进一步简化土地保有制度:非自由役保有和古地自保被转化为农役保有;废除了肯特君土地保有习惯、幼子优先继承地产等古老的继承习惯;并且逐渐废止了自由教役保有。侍君役权被作为一种荣誉性服务保留下来。Escheat propter defectum sanguinins,作为一种允许领主在土地保有权人死亡后没有继承人时取得土地的权利,被bona vacantia代替,该制度下,无人继承财产归皇室所有。 这一改革使得土地保有制度基本上成为了只在学术上有意义的概念,虽然所有的土地仍然有上一级所有人,从而也就不会有绝对所有权人。

接上页 Doctrine of Estate 占有而非所有(Seisin, Possession not Ownership):在tenure制度下,土地既不可能由tenant 所有,也不可能由lord所有:…“Seisin”…is an enjoyment of property based upon title, and is not essentially distinguishable from right. In other words, the sharp distinction between property and possession made in Roman law did not obtain in English law; seisin in not the Roman possession and right is not the ownership. Both of these conceptions are represented in English law only by seisin, and it was the essence of the conception of seisin that some seisins might be better than others. –Plucknett, Concise History of the Common Law (5th edn), p. 358. 对物诉讼(Real Actions):对物诉讼侧重于比较哪个当事人的权利优先,而非决定那个当事人应该有绝对的所有权。 失去占有的权利人和占有人的关系:The person seised has all the rights of an owner; the person diseised has the right to get seisin by entry or action; but till he has got it, he has none of the rights as an owner. In other words, the common law recognizes, not dominium and possession, but seisin only.—Holdsworth, History of English Law, vol. Iii. p. 95. 在权利转移时,卖方主要通过其占有向买方证明自己有权出售土地:With very few exceptions, there is only one way in which an apparent owner of English land who is minded to deal with it can show his right so to do; and that way is to show that he and those through whom he claims have possessed the land for a time sufficient to exclude any reasonable probability of a superior adverse claim.—Pollock and Wright, Possession in the Common Law, pp. 94-5.

接上页 Doctrine of Estate 的特征 根据地产权的持续时间长短对地产权进行分类 (freehold/less than freehold):见下页图 地产权人的选定

衡平法对普通法的影响 普通法的不足 完全保有地产权的移转手续复杂,而且通常必须在有关地块上或该地块可视的附近进行—履行转移保有仪式的封地授予(Foeffment with livery of seisin:让与人与受让人在准备让于的土地上或土地边,以交付嫩枝或土块的方式,当着证人的面说出让于已完成的言辞。 由于占有是权利公示的唯一方式,可以在土地上创设的利益(尤其是将来的利益)及其有限。 普通法上的土地保有人不能遗赠其完全保有地产权。 普通法上的土地保有人有很多人身负担。 衡平法的发展 保有地收益权(cestui que use)的出现及其法律后果 在14世纪前,地主往往把土地的使用权让于他人,这种让于在普通法上使地主失权,但从1400年起,衡平法院开始保护这种利益。 普通法上的地产权和衡平法上地产权并存局面的出现。 保有地收益权人制度的出现及其优势,如土地遗赠成为可能,土地交割变得简单,土地授予变成可能、避免人身负担、避免没收和收回。 现代信托地产权的出现 (HENRY VIII强迫通过的Statute of Uses 1535的负面影响及消除)

对地产权的简化 把土地保有简化为一种——农役保有(Socage) Doctine of Tenure 的没落:实质上的消失和形式上的继续 1925年、1996年立法对普通法的简化 对地产权的简化 把土地保有简化为一种——农役保有(Socage) Doctine of Tenure 的没落:实质上的消失和形式上的继续 对动产权利法和不动产权利法的统一 对一些过时的规则的抛弃

①those interests which could be legal easements, rights of re-entry, rent charges, mortgages. ②those which can only be equitable e.g. restrictive covenants, licences, estate contracts.

Estate:地产权的总称,包括自由保有地产权[freehold]和租赁地产权[leasehold]。 完全的土地所有权 Estate in Fee Simple Absolute in Possession:现在占有的,永久的(不 带限定条件的),广义可继承的土地自由保有权。 Estate:地产权的总称,包括自由保有地产权[freehold]和租赁地产权[leasehold]。 Fee [inheritable]:这个权利是永久的,除非是他的所有人或继承人全部去世,既无遗嘱也无继承人。 Simple:可以转移给一般继承人,而对继承人的等级没有限定,以表示与一种继承—fee tail 相区别,后者是限定只能转移给直系子孙的。 Absolute:该地产权不带有任何可以中止的限定条件,即可以持续永久,以表示与一种可以终止的可继承地产权[determinable fee simple]的区别。后者在设立时带有一些限定条件,即如果一些特殊情况发生,地产权即告中止。 In possession: 现在持有权,而非将来财产。

1925年、1996年两次对土地交割的转化 1925年以前的非登记交割制度 登记交割和非登记交割在1990年以前并存 接上页 1925年、1996年两次对土地交割的转化 1925年以前的非登记交割制度 买方必须调查:卖方是否有权把合同规定的权利移转给他;以及土地上是否存在有利于第三人的负担,而且这些负担会在交割后继续存在。 在1925年的立法生效前,普通法上的第三人权利将随土地的移转而移转 程序:open contract/subject to a contract/lock-out agreement/exchange of contract(合同在签字交换后生效) 登记交割和非登记交割在1990年以前并存 1990年以后的交割必须采取登记交割的方式 现行的登记制度包括:property registration, proprietorship registration and charges registration 但是,不登记只会导致普通法上的权利转移无效,受让人仍取得衡平法上的权利。(Land Registration Act, Section 123 (A)(5))

土地 成文法上的定义,例如: s.205(1), as amended by TLATA 1996, s. 25(2), Sch. 4: “Land” includes land of any tenure, and mines and minerals, whether or not held apart from the surface, buildings or parts of buildings (whether the division is horizontal, vertical or made in any other way) and other corporeal hereditaments; also a manor, an advowson, and a rent and other incorporeal hereditaments, and an easement, right, privilege, or benefit in, over, or derived from land; but not an undivided share in land… s.4 Land Titles Act (新加坡):“the surface of any defined parcel of the earth, all substances thereunder and so much of the airspace above…as is reasonable necessary for the proprietor’s enjoyment…and includes any estate or interest therein and all vegetation growing thereon and structures affixed thereto

土地上的附着物:Land---Fixtures “附着物”是哪些与土地或土地上的建筑物紧密联结以至于实际上成为土地或建筑物的一部分的动产(Chattels)。 检验标准 1. 联结的方式和程度 2. 联结的目的 作为一个一般的原则,附着物作为土地的一部分,应该随土地的流转而流转,而且不能被随便移动,但是,该原则在处理下面5对关系时有所松动 1. 租赁关系(landlord and tenant): 承租人有权在租赁关系中或结束时,将以下三方面的附着物移走,即使它们属于最严格意义下的附着物 (trade fixture)承租人为营业目的而附着的附着物 (鼓励工商业的公共政策) Poole’s Case (1703) 1 Salk 368: that during the term the soap-boiler might well remove the vats he set up in relation to trade, and that he might do it by the common law (and not by virtue of any special custom), in favor of trade and to encourage industry. But after the term they became a gift in law to him in reversion, and are not removable. (Ornamental and domestic fixture)为装饰或居住目的而附着的附着物:但这种移动以不对房屋造成实质性损害为前提 接下页

接上页 农业附着物(Agricultural Fixtures) 历史状况:Elwes v. Maw (1802) 3 East 38: though the sole purpose of their affixation was to further and improve his agricultural operations, yet they could not be regarded as trade fixtures. Mears v. Callender (1901) 2 Ch 388: though buidings put up by a farmer were not trade fixtures, yet glasshouses built by a market-gardener did come within this description and could be removed before the end of the tenancy. Tenancy with the Agricultural Holding Act 1986 (原则上不适用于1995年9月1号或之后成立的租赁):承租人为农业目的而附着的任何附着物或营造的建筑物,如果不能从其他途径得到补偿,属于承租人的财产。承租人可以在租赁期限内或租赁期满后两个月内移走。上述期间届满后,该附着物就不再归承租人所有。(ss. 10 (1), (2)) 承租人应该至少在租赁期满前一个月通知出租人自己移走附着物或建筑物的打算,并给出租人出价购买的机会。(s. 10 (2))。承租人在付清租金并履行自己在租赁合同下的其他义务前,无权移走附着物。承租人还应对自己移走附着物时给出租人财产造成的损失负损害赔偿责任。(s. 10 (5)) “Farm business tenancy” under the Agricultural Tenancies Act 1995 (适用于1995年9月1号后成立的租赁):承租人有权在租赁期内或期满后继续占有租赁物时移走其附着的附着物或营造的建筑物。(s. 8 (1))。但承租人为履行自己的义务而附着的附着物或营造的建筑物不在此限;或者,承租人能够从其他途径得到补偿时,承租人就不能行使该权利。(s. 8 (2)) 承租人移走附着物或建筑物的权利,不以其遵守租赁合同为前提。承租人也没有义务通知出租人并给出租人购买的权利。承租人的这一权利不能通过事先协议放弃;承租人也不能超出该法的规定行使权利。(s. 8 (6), (7)) 接下页

接上页 2. 抵押关系 (Mortgagor and Mortgagee) Vandeville Electric Cinema Ltd v. Muriset [1923] 2 Ch 74: Fixture pass with the land to the mortgagee even though not mentioned in the deed, as also do those which are added later by the mortgagor himself while in possession. Longbottom v. Berry (1869) LR 5 QB 123: A mortgagor in possession is not entitled to remove “tenant’s” fixture, whether they have been annexed to the land before or after the mortgage transaction. 但是: Gough v. Wood & Co [1894] 1 QB 713: Fixtures have been annexed to land by a third party under agreement between him and the mortgagor which permits him to remove them in certain circumstances, his right of removal cannot in general be defeated by the mortgagee. The mortgagee, by allowing the mortgagor to remain in possession, implicitly authorizing him to make agreements usual and proper in his particular trade. 3. 买卖关系(Vendor and Purchaser) 在交付土地时,除非有明示的保留,否则,土地上的附着物(fixtures, but not chattels)随之转移 [Law of Property Act 1925, s. 62 (1))。更重要的是,卖方不能在合同签订后到交割完成的这段时间内,移走附着物,即使卖方仍占有该物,而且该附着物在租赁关系将被视为“承租人的附着物” [Gibson v. Hammersmith & City Rly Co (1863) 32 LJ Ch 337; Phillips v. Lamdin [1949] 2 KB 33, [1949] 1 All ER 770.] 但是,当事人可以在合同中另行约定。 接下页

(Executor of Fee Simple Owner and Devisee(受遗赠人)) 接上页 (Tenant for Life and Reversioner or Remainderman) 终生地产权保有人与归复权人或剩余地产权人间的移转 终生承租人附着于土地的动产,如果已经成为土地的一部分,应该归fee simple 人所有。 但是,死去的终生承租人的私人代表有权移走“一般的承租人可以移走的附着物”,即为营业、装饰或居住目的而附着的附着物。Lawton v. Lawton (1743) 3 Atk 13. (Executor of Fee Simple Owner and Devisee(受遗赠人)) Re Whaley [1908] 1 Ch 615; Re Lord Chesterfield’s Settled Estates [1911] 1 Ch 237: The rule is well established that all fixtures, no matter of what description, pass with the land to the devisee. Executor of fee simple owner are entitled remove, at any rate, “tenant’s fixture”.

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