第 5 章 全球行銷之政治、法律與管制環境 © 2005 Prentice Hall

政 治 環 境 政治文化反應政府和法律系統的重要性 研究當地政府機構 國家與主權 政治風險 稅賦 股權稀釋威脅 資產徵收 Global marketing activities take place within the political environment of governmental institutions, political parties, and organizations through which a country’s people and rulers exercise power. Each nation also has a political culture, which reflects the relative importance of the government and legal system and provides a context within which individuals and corporations understand their relationship to the political system. Any company doing business outside its home country should carefully study the political culture in the target country and analyze salient issues arising from the political environment. These include the governing party’s attitude toward sovereignty, political risk, taxes, the threat of equity dilution, and expropriation. © 2005 Prentice Hall

“每一個主權國家應該尊重其他每個主權國家的獨立﹐而一個國家的法庭不會坐視其他國家在其領土上做出判決的行動。” 國 家 與 主 權 “每一個主權國家應該尊重其他每個主權國家的獨立﹐而一個國家的法庭不會坐視其他國家在其領土上做出判決的行動。” - 美國史丹利基金會總裁 © 2005 Prentice Hall

政治風險的原因 每當大眾知覺其渴求和現實之間有一大差距時﹐便會有政治風險。 在低所得和中低所得國家﹐經濟危機可能引起政治風險。 如：印尼。 當政治風險發生在高收入國家﹐同樣引發了一個高的政治風險水準。 如：北愛爾蘭共和國。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

政 治 風 險 基本的政治風險﹐是在某一個時點下當地居民的渴望及目標與真實情境之間的緊張狀態。 在高所得國家這種渴望和現實之間的差距﹐是很少會大到產生一個明顯的政治風險程度。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

心智(仇視外國人、國家主義、賄賂、裙帶關係) 政治風險種類 EIU 企業環境風險報導(BERI) PRS團體世界性政治風險預測 戰爭 政治連續帶的劃分 政治動亂的機率性 社會的不安 以語言種族或宗教團體來劃分 公平的限制 有秩序的政治輪替 維持權力所要求之限制和威迫的衡量 地方營運限制 政治性暴力 心智(仇視外國人、國家主義、賄賂、裙帶關係) 稅捐的差別待遇 A number of organizations such as the Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU; www.eiu.com), the Geneva-based Business Environment Risk Intelligence (BERI SA; www.beri.com), and the PRS Group (www.prsgroup.com) specialize in providing up-to-date political risk reports on individual country markets. These commercial sources, however, vary somewhat in the criteria that constitute political risk. For example, BERI is concerned with societal and system attributes, whereas PRS Group focuses more directly on government actions and economic functions. The EIU analyzes political risk in terms of five subcategories of political stability, and five subcategories of political effectiveness. Political risk, in turn, is one of four components in an overall country risk rating. © 2005 Prentice Hall

政治風險的說明和徵兆 發展越差的國家﹐政治風險也越大。 增加經濟的不確定性﹐即增加風險。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

所得與政治風險 三極國 所 得 高 蘇聯、印尼、 中國 風 險 高 低 This slide illustrates how income can affect political risk in a country. 低 高 風 險 © 2005 Prentice Hall

稅 賦 政府稅賦政策： 公司稅賦： 大部份進口會被課以極高的進口稅。 高政治風險的國家﹐可以說部份是對企業營運課稅過高。 稅 賦 政府稅賦政策： 大部份進口會被課以極高的進口稅。 公司稅賦： 高政治風險的國家﹐可以說部份是對企業營運課稅過高。 Governments rely on tax revenues to generate funds necessary for social services, the military, and other expenditures. Unfortunately, government taxation policies on the sale of goods and services frequently motivate for companies and individuals to profit by not paying taxes. In China, for example, most imports are subject to high duties, plus a 17 percent value-added tax. As a result, significant quantities of oil, cigarettes, photographic film, personal computers, and other products are smuggled into China. Corporate taxation is another issue. The high level of political risk currently evident in Russia can be attributed in part to excessively high taxes on business operations. High taxes encourage many enterprises to engage in cash or barter transactions that are off the books and sheltered from the eyes of tax authorities. This, in turn, has created a liquidity squeeze that prevents companies from paying wages to employees. © 2005 Prentice Hall

資 產 沒 收 徵收指處分外國公司或投資者的政府行動。 雖未經常依國際標準去提供「即時的、有效的、足夠的」方式補償﹐但一般還是會給予補償。 如果未提供任何補償﹐這行動便稱為沒收充公。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

資 產 沒 收 國有化 – 一般比徵收的範圍廣；尤其是當政府在特定的產業中﹐控制一些或全部企業時而發生。 國際法認同國有化為合法的政府權力執行﹐只要此能滿足「公共目的」及附帶有「適當的給付」。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

國 際 法 國際法可定義為約束主權國家的規則和原則﹐國際法涉及財產、貿易、移民與其他原本隸屬個別國家傳統司法管轄權下的範圍。 國 際 法 國際法可定義為約束主權國家的規則和原則﹐國際法涉及財產、貿易、移民與其他原本隸屬個別國家傳統司法管轄權下的範圍。 新國際司法組織也致力於國際法規的訂定： 國際司法永久法庭 國際司法法庭 (ICJ) © 2005 Prentice Hall

普通法與民事法 Napoleon’s code of 1804 was the prototype for the code law system that predominates in Europe today. © 2005 Prentice Hall

普通法與民事法 羅馬是歐洲大陸民法傳統的根源﹐而美國法律系統則源自英國的普通法。 民事法國家的法律系統﹐可反映出西元第六世紀羅馬帝國的理念與結構。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

回 教 法 規 很多中東國家的法律系統﹐還是以回教法規為主﹐係與「一個且唯一的一個神；萬能之神」有關。 法規來源有二： 一是以阿拉伯文寫成﹐紀錄先知穆罕默德啟示的聖書―可蘭經。 另一為記載穆罕默德的生活、嘉言與實務的聖訓。 Any Westerner doing business in Malaysia in the Middle East should have, at minimum, a rudimentary understanding of Islamic law and its implications for commercial activities. Brewers, for example, must refrain from advertising beer on billboards or in local-language newspapers. © 2005 Prentice Hall

司 法 管 轄 權 審判權指的是一種法庭所授與的權力﹐判決某些在國界之外所發生的特定類型之衝突爭執﹐或者是對來自國外之個人或團體行使該權力。 在美國的外商公司雇員﹐也必須認知到地主國法院對該公司商業行為有一定管轄權。 法院可審查外商公司﹐是否設立辦事處、經營事業、維持銀行帳戶或其他財產、是否設有經銷商或公司內是否存在可疑員工等。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

智 慧 財 產 權 受某國保護的專利與商標在另一國家時﹐未必可受到同樣的保護﹐因此全球行銷者必須確定已在準備經營事業的國家登記專利與商標。 專利：是正式的法律文件﹐給發明者在一段特定期間全部的權利來製造、使用和銷售其發明。 商標：定義為獨特的標記、箴言、建議或象徵﹐製造商貼在特定產品或包裝上以區別其他製造商生產的產品。 版權：建立了寫作、錄音、表演或電影創作工作的擁有權。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

反托拉斯 美國與其他國家設置反托拉斯法的目的﹐在於反對企業的經營限制且鼓勵企業間的競爭。 例如：美國的Federal Trade Commission、日本的Fair Trade Commission、歐洲的European Commission。 Antitrust is taking on increasing importance in emerging country markets. For example, Colgate- Palmolive’s 1995 acquisition of Brazil’s Kolynos oral care company for $1 billion was subject to review by that country’s Administrative Council of Economic Defense (Cade). Rival Procter & Gamble instigated the review by complaining that the acquisition would give Colgate a 79 percent share of the market. Cade ruled that Colgate must either license the trademark to another company for 20 years or halt sales of Kolynos brand toothpaste in Brazil for 4 years; Colgate agreed to the latter. The Miller Brewing unit of Philip Morris also ran into antitrust problems in Brazil following its 1995 investment of $50 million in a 50/50 joint venture with Cia. Cervejaria Brahma SA. Cade ruled that the venture, which produced and distributed Miller Genuine Draft beer, deprived consumers of head-to-head competition between the two brewing companies. Cade also criticized Miller for choosing a market entry strategy that required a relatively low level of investment. Nelio Weiss, a consultant at Coopers & Lybrand’s Sao Paulo office, noted, “The message is that foreign companies shouldn’t assume that antitrust authorities will be passive.” © 2005 Prentice Hall

授權申請與商業機密 授權申請是指授權者允許被授權者使用其專利、商標、商業機密、技術或其它無形資產﹐但被授權者必須支付使用費或有所補償。 注意下列事項： 分析此公司在授權方面所可提供的資產。 如何估價此資產？ 是否只授權其生產權？ © 2005 Prentice Hall

授權申請與商業機密 商業機密是指具有商業價值而且不被大眾所知的祕密資訊或知識﹐且流程步驟是受到嚴格保密的。即包括：過程、規格、設計與客戶名單等機密。 為為避免這些機密的曝光﹐尤其是為保護未取得專利前的商業機密﹐最好事先與參與的員工訂好契約。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

貪污與賄賂 海外貪污行為法案 管理此法之責為司法部以及證券交易委員會﹐此法案包括揭露與禁止兩部份。 揭露的部份要求公司內部控制必須紀錄所有交易內容；禁止的部份則明文規定﹐美國企業組織向外國官員或政治團體行賄﹐以取得或保護事業經營權利乃屬違法。 付款給第三者再轉送給外國官員的作法﹐也同樣被禁止。 History does not record a burst of international outrage when Charles M. Schwab, head of Bethlehem steel at the beginning of the twentieth century, presented a $200,000 diamond and pearl necklace to the mistress of Czar Alexander III’s nephew.32 In return for that consideration, Bethlehem Steel won the contract to supply the rails for the Trans-Siberian railroad. Things have changed. The Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) is a legacy of the Watergate scandal during Richard Nixon’s presidency. In the course of his investigation, the Watergate special prosecutor discovered that more than 300 American companies had made undisclosed payments to foreign officials totaling hundreds of millions of dollars. The act was unanimously passed by Congress and signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on December 17, 1977. © 2005 Prentice Hall

2003 賄 賂 排 名 七大無不良紀錄的國家 1. 芬蘭 2. 冰島 3. 丹麥 4. 紐西蘭 5. 新加坡 6. 瑞典 7. 荷蘭 七大賄賂的國家 孟加拉 奈及利亞 海地 巴拉圭 Myanmar Tajikistan 喬治亞共和國 Transparency International (www.transparency.org) compiles an annual report ranking countries by Corruption Perceptions Index. The “cleanest” score is 10. © 2005 Prentice Hall

衝 突 解 決 訴訟。 正式的仲裁是指不透過法庭處理國際交易糾紛。 與國際仲裁有關的最重要條約是1958年在外國仲裁獎的表揚中的聯合國公約。也就是我們所熟知的紐約公約。 The United States has more lawyers than any other country in the world and is arguably the most litigious nation on earth. In part, this is a reflection of the low-context nature of American culture and the spirit of confrontational competitiveness. Other factors can contribute to differing attitudes toward litigation. For example, in many European nations, class action lawsuits are not allowed. Also, European lawyers cannot undertake cases on a contingency fee basis. However, change is in the air, as Europe experiences a broad political shift away from the welfare state. © 2005 Prentice Hall

國際律師人數之比較 國家 每十萬人的律師人數 美國 290 澳洲 242 英國 141 法國 80 德國 79 匈牙利 日本 11 韓國 3 © 2005 Prentice Hall

管 制 的 環 境 行銷範圍有：價格管制、進出口估價、貿易實務、標籤、食品與酒類規定、就業條件、集體協商、廣告內容與競爭實務等。 區域經濟組織﹐如：歐盟。 © 2005 Prentice Hall

接續 第 6章 全球資訊系統與 市場研究 © 2005 Prentice Hall