第五章 成本理论
成本之于个人或组织—决策依据 边际成本与边际收益的比较 “没有免费午餐”(外国) “天上不会掉馅饼”(中国) “有得必有失”(中国) 就最一般的意义来说,所谓成本就是为了达到某种目的或获得某种商品所付出的代价。 关于成本的经典谚语 “没有免费午餐”(外国) “天上不会掉馅饼”(中国) “有得必有失”(中国) 舍不了孩子套不住狼(中国) …… 都是对成本概念的生动诠释。当得到某种东西的代价过于昂贵时,我们就会说,这样做 “得不偿失”
成本之于企业——关乎存亡 成本是经济学最基本的概念之一。获得产出需要投入,投入就会发生成本。利润是收益减去成本的余额。因而,成本是制约企业实现盈利目标的基本因素。成本函数和成本曲线反映了企业决策的重要约束条件。本章研究企业的成本函数和成本曲线,作为分析企业产量决策以及进入和退出决策的准备。
主要内容 一、生产成本及其概念 二、成本函数 三、短期成本函数 四、长期成本函数
一、生产成本及其概念 经济学所理解的成本概念与日常生活或者会计学意义上的成本概念存在区别,从而造成经济利润与会计利润的不同。 在经济分析中中所使用的成本概念,认为生产成本不仅是货币支出,而是作出一种选择而牺牲的其他选择。即使厂商投入的某些要素并不是花钱买来的,经济成本仍然存在,因为厂商牺牲了这些要素若用于别的用途可能带来的收益。
成本 显性成本 隐含成本 会计成本 变动成本 固定成本 经济成本 图5-1 成本的类型
1、显性成本vs.隐性成本: 显性成本 (Explicit Cost) 企业从市场上购买生产要素而支付货币所构成的成本; 隐性成本 (Implicit cost) 使用自有生产要素而支付的费用。区别在于购买的生产要素的所有权不同。
2、 经济成本vs.会计成本 经济成本(economic cost): 经济学家——并且我们希望还有企业的经理——对企业采取一种向前看的观点。他们关注于稀缺资源的合理配置。他们在意未来什么成本可能发生以及以什么方式企业可以重新组合其资源以降低成本和改进赢利能力。(用于经济决策) Cost to a firm of utilizing economic resources in production, including opportunity cost. Economists use the terms economics cost and opportunity cost synonymously. 厂商经营的总成本就是实际使用的所有资源的机会成本的总和。为明确起见,我们把如此计算出来的总成本称为厂商经营的生产成本或经济成本。因此,从经济成本的角度出发,厂商显性成本与隐性成本之和正好等于投入要素的机会成本。
会计成本(accounting cost) 指购买或生产某种物品过去和现在发生的财务费用或历史成本。由会计帐簿所记录,企业真实发生的成本。过去指向。(用于会计核算) Actual expenses plus depreciation charges for capital equipment. accounting cost can include items that a economics usually would not include and would not include items that economics usually do include 。
图5-2 经济成本 会计成本 vs. Forward-looking retrospective
经济利润与会计利润 经济利润=收益- 经济成本 (机会成本总和) 会计利润=收益- 会计成本 (显性成本)
机会成本(opportunity cost) 3、机会成本vs.沉没成本 机会成本(opportunity cost) 对于要素的所有者来说,如果一种生产要素被用于某一特定用途,它便放弃了在其他替代用途上可获取的种种收益,所放弃的收益中最大的收益就是这一特定用途的机会成本。 Cost associated with opportunities that are forgone when a firm’s resources are not put to their highest-value use. 机会成本存在的前提:生产要素是稀缺的而用途却是 竞争性的。
沉没成本(sunk cost)是指已经支出且无法收回的成本。 Expenditure that has been made and cannot be recovered. 经济学在决策时对于成本的考虑,与日常思维方式的不同之处在于:对于机会成本“斤斤计较”,对沉没成本则“既往不咎”。机会成本的存在,提醒要素的所有者,要尽可能有效地使用经济资源。
Example5.1 Choose the Location for a New Law school Building The Northwestern University Law School has been located in Chicago, along the shore of Lake Michigan. However, the main campus of the university is located in the suburb of Evanston. In the mid-1970s, the law school began planning the construction of a new building and needed to decide on appropriate location. Should it be built on the current site, where it would remain near downtown Chicago law firms? Or should it be moved to Evanston, Where it would become physical integrated with the rest of the university?
The downtown location had many prominent supporters The downtown location had many prominent supporters. They argued in part that it was cost-effective to locate the new building in the city because the university already owned the land. A large parcel of land would have to be purchased in Evanston if the building were to be built there. Does this argument make economic sense? In the end, Northwestern decided to keep the law school in Chicago location. This was a costly decision. It may have been appropriate if Chicago location was particularly valuable to the law school, but it was inappropriate if it was made on the presumption that the downtown land was without cost.
4、固定成本与变动成本 企业经营分为短期与长期,投入要素可分为固定投入与可变投入,相应地,在成本方面就有固定成本与可变成本的区分。 总成本 TC (Total Cost) Total economic cost of production, consisting of fixed and variable costs. 固定成本 FC (Fixed Cost ):支付给固定要素的费用。 Cost that does not vary with the level of output . 变动成本VC (Variable cost ) :支付给可变要素的费用。 Cost that varies as output varies.
固定成本 与 沉没成本的区别 固定成本 如关键管理人员的薪金,办公场地的支出 以及助部门的开销。如果停业可以避免; 固定成本 如关键管理人员的薪金,办公场地的支出 以及助部门的开销。如果停业可以避免; 沉没成本 则不然——一旦支出无法收回。
Example 5.2 Sunk, Fixed and Variable Costs: Computers, software, and Pizzas A firm’s pricing and production decision – and its profitability- depend on strongly on the structure of its costs. It is there important for managers to understand the characteristics of production costs and to be able to identify which costs are fixed, which are variable, and which are sunk. The relative size of these different cost components can vary considerably across industries. Good examples include the personal computer industry (where most costs are variable) , the computer software industry (where most costs are sunk), and the pizzeria business (where most costs are fixed). Let’s look at each of these in turn.
the personal computer industry (where most costs are variable) Companies like Dell, Compaq, and IBM produce millions of personal computers every year. Because the computers they produce are very similar, competition is intense, and profitability depend critically on the ability to keep costs down. Most of these cost are variable – they increase in proportion to the number of computer produced each year. Most important is the cost of components: the micropro-cess that does much of the actual computation, memory chips, hard disk drives and other storage device, video and sound cards, etc. Typically, the majority of these components are purchased from outside suppliers in quantities that depend on the number of computers produced.
Another important part of variable cost for these companies is labor Another important part of variable cost for these companies is labor.workers are needed to assemble the computers and then to package and ship them. There is little in the way of sunk cost because the factories cost little relative to the value of the company’s annual output. Likewise, there is little in the way of fixed costs – perhaps the salaries of the top executives, some security guards, and electricity Thus when Dell and IBM think about ways of reduc-ing cost, they focus largely on getting better prices for components or reducing labor requirement – both of which are ways of reducing variable cost .
the computer software industry (where most costs are sunk) What about the software programs that run on these personal computers? Microsoft produces the windows operating system as well as variety of applications such as Word, Excel, and PowerPoint. The cost of production for such firms are quite different from those facing hardware manufacturers. In software production most are sunk. Typically, a software firm will spend a large amount of money to develop a new application program. These expenditures cannot be recovered.
Once the program is completed, the company can try to recoup its investment (and make a profit as well) by selling as many copies of the program as possible. The variable cost of producing copies of the program is very small – it is largely the cost of coping the program to floppy disks or CDs and then packaging and ship the product. Likewise, the fixed cost of production is small. Because most costs are sunk, entering software business can involve considerable risk. Until the development money has been spent and the product has been released for sale, an entrepreneur is unlikely to known how many copies can be sold and whether or not he will be able to make money.
the pizzeria business (where most costs are fixed) For the pizzeria, the largest component of cost is fixed. Sunk cost are fairly low because pizza oven, chairs, tables, and dishes can be resold if the pizzeria goes out of business. Variable cost are also fairly low – mainly the ingredient for pizza ( flour, tomato sauce, cheese, and pepperoni for typical large pizza might cost $1) and perhaps wages for a couple of work to help produce, serve, and deliver the pizza. Most of the cost is fixed – the opportunity cost of the owner’s time, rent, and utility. Because of these high fixed costs, most pizzerias (which might charge $10 for a large pizza costing about $3 in variable cost to produce) don’t make very high profits.
5、关于短期与长期 短期厂商所作的决策是在既定的生产规模下,即资本要素的数量和质量不变的前提下作出决策,这种决策是确定可变要素的投入数量或要素的组合比例,以获得每单位产品的最低的平均成本——寻求最优产出率; 长期,厂商在所有的生产要素的数量和质量都是可变的条件下,所作的决策是寻找最佳生产规模来生产实现计划的产量,一旦厂商选择了一个特定的生产规模,它的产量决策马上又转化为短期的决策。
二、短期成本函数(SRTC) 总成本 TC 固定成本 (短期) 边际成本 平均可变成本AVC 1、主要成本指标 及其相互关系 平均成本 固定成本 (短期) 变动成本 边际成本 平均成本 平均可变成本AVC 平均固定成本AFC (短期)
AC最小 若 P=MR=MC=AC 则收支相抵点 AVC最小 若P=MR=MC=AVC 则 停止营业点
2、短期成本的变动规律 表5-1一个企业的短期成本
成本函数 成本方程 A B MC=AVC 图5-3 短期成本曲线 TC C VC FC MC=AC 收支相抵点 MC AC AVC AFC Q MC AC AVC FC C 图5-3 短期成本曲线 A B MC=AC 收支相抵点 成本方程 MC=AVC 停止营业点
3、关于MC、AC、AVC关系的推论 1°MC、AVC、AC皆先下降后上升而呈“U”形, MC、 AVC、AC相继达到最低点; 2° MC↓ AVC ↓ AC 必然↓(AC=AFC+AVC ); AVC不必马上↑ 3° AC不必马上↑ 只要MC绝对水平仍然低于AVC,则尽管MC上升,AVC仍会下降。MC持续上升与AVC持续下降,二者终究会在某一点相交,此时,AVC达到它的最低点,之后则由下降转为上升。 因为只要MC绝对水平低于AC,则MC上升时,AC仍然会下降。MC持续上升与AC持续下降,二者终究会在某一点相交,此时,AC达到它的最低点,之后则由下降转为上升。平均成本最小值对应的产出量是有效规模产量。 当MC↑时
4°AVC与AC曲线都会↑,但是由于AC曲线需要分摊固定成本,它永远会高于AVC曲线。 5° MC先与AVC相交,再与AC相交。 当AVC最低时,AFC还会下降,AC还未达到最低点
三、长期成本函数(LRTC) 短期与长期 短期——厂商所作的决策是在既定的生产规模下,即资本要素的数量和质量不变的前提下作出决策,这种决策是确定可变要素的投入数量或要素的组合比例,以获得每单位产品的最低的平均成本——寻求最优产出率; 长期——厂商在所有的生产要素的数量和质量都是可变的条件下,所作的决策是寻找最佳生产规模来生产实现计划的产量,一旦厂商选择了一个特定的生产规模,它的产量决策马上又转化为短期的决策。
1、长期总成本(LTC) STC包络线 2、长期平均成本(LAC) 3、长期边际成本(LMC) 4、LMC与LAC关系 STC1 STC2 STC3 LTC C Q Q1 Q2 Q3 STC包络线 (envelope curve) 2、长期平均成本(LAC) SAC包络线。 SAC最低点最优产出率 LAC最低点最佳工厂规模 Q LAC 图6-6 LTC、LAC、LMC曲线 SAC E LMC Q1 Q2 Q3 3、长期边际成本(LMC) 由LTC推出:LTC同一产量时的斜率。 4、LMC与LAC关系 两者相交于LAC曲线的最低点E 左侧: MC<AC 规模报酬递增 右侧: MC>AC 规模报酬递减
۞ 四、辨析与题解 AC、LAC曲线呈“U”形的不同含义 由生产函数推求成本函数 解读成本:苹果与阿尔钦——艾伦定理
U形MC、AC曲线的经济含义—边际收益变动规律 1、AC、LAC曲线呈“U”形的不同含义 U形MC、AC曲线的经济含义—边际收益变动规律 对U形MC曲线的一般经济解释是,在雇佣数量较少工人时,工人之间劳动协作和配合可能会使劳动效率更快提高,从而使新增工人带来的产出增加大于此前每个工人能够创造出的出的产量。由于新增工人数量能够在边际意义上提高劳动效率,结果使边际成本在产出数量较低阶段下降。即给定作业小组最佳人数范围内,生产效率提高即边际成本下降。然而,给定设备等固定投入条件,随着雇工人数增加,更多的工人在一起干活会出现“窝工”现象,劳动边际收益递减规律发生作用,劳动边际产出下降。劳动边际产出下降意味着生产边际成本上升。边际成本先降后升,构成U形曲线。 即边际收益经历递增、不变到递减的过程。
U形LAC曲线的经济含义—规模报酬变动规律 递减 不变 递增 Q 规模报酬图解 C LMC LAC E L、K单位数 O Q1 Q2 Q3 Q MC<AC MC>AC MC=MC 图中显示的三种收益既可相互独立——不同规模的厂商显示出不同的规模报酬; 又可互相关联——即一种生产技术在不同的生产水平上显示出不同的规模报酬,即任何厂商在扩大其规模时,都是先经过一个规模的报酬递增阶段,然后经过收益不变阶段,再经过一个规模的收益递减阶段。
MC与AC之间的关系与规模报酬的联系 图5-4 MC与AC之间的关系与规模报酬的联系 MC<AC,则AC下降,规模报酬递增。 Q MC AC (c)规模报酬递减 AC MC AC=MC Q (a)规模报酬递增 (b)规模报酬不变 图5-4 MC与AC之间的关系与规模报酬的联系 MC<AC,则AC下降,规模报酬递增。 MC=AC,则AC是一条水平线;规模报酬不变; MC>AC,则AC一直上升,一定会有规模报酬递减.
例1 生产函数为 ,劳动和资本的价格分别为PL和PK,试求相应的成本函数。 2、由生产函数推求成本函数 例1 生产函数为 ,劳动和资本的价格分别为PL和PK,试求相应的成本函数。 方法 实际上,在短期中,每种生产规模都是最低成本规模。由此,我们可以将成本函数的确定转化为在给定产量下确定成本最小的问题。通过构造拉格朗日函数,便可确定各生产要素之间的关系,代入生产函数求出成本函数。
【步骤】
3、解读成本 苹果与阿尔钦——艾伦定理 我们在超级市场里常常能看到品种繁多的进口水果(产自外国或本国的外地)各个色泽鲜艳,果实饱满,形状均匀可人。不明白的人往往感叹外国的东西好、技术先进。其实但他当有机会去这些水果的产地走一走,市场上地产的水果却不像他以前所见到的那样,他一定会感到困惑的。 岂止是我们有此困惑。在华盛顿州,有人注意到质优味美的华盛顿苹果都被运往别处。其实,这种现象非常普遍。难道质量最优的水果在它们的产地就找不到吗?这种现象着实有点令人费解,因为它与常识相矛盾。
总有喜欢较真的人,这便有了下面的故事。一位愤怒的消费者在写给《西雅图时报》的信里抱怨在当地的水果店里买不到优质苹果,他写到: 为什么当地市场上的华盛顿苹果又小又难呢?最近,几个采摘苹果的朋友带来了一些他们刚摘的苹果,这些苹果至少是那些能在当地市场买到的苹果的四倍大。这些美味大苹果都到那里去了呢?它们被运往欧洲或中东地区了吗?在西雅图这里能买得到吗?
阿尔钦——艾伦对此的回答是,假定商品在运往目的地的过程中没有发生损坏、腐烂或其他质量上的改变,如果优质苹果和劣质苹果如果运输费用相同,那么,在进口地优质苹果变得相对便宜,因而对优质苹果的需求量要大。换句话说,进口地对优质苹果的消费比例比产地要高。这样就消费者所抱怨的情形便出现了。这不是在耍什么花招,只不过是需求规律在起作用。
对美味苹果的讨论引出了众所周知的“阿尔钦——艾伦”定理。根据该定理,当相同的附加成本被加到两个相似的商品价格上时,其结果是人们会增加对优质产品的相对消费量。因此,优质产品很可能被出口。 这种阿尔钦——艾伦效应在很多市场上都能看到。加利福尼亚的橘子和葡萄、意大利的皮革制品、法国的葡萄酒、德克萨斯的牛肉、哥伦比亚的咖啡、夏威夷的凤梨、华盛顿的橘子、华盛顿的苹果……。
阿尔钦——艾伦对这个问题作了进一步的扩展,指出:为什么亚洲人从美国进口的高价车比低价车多呢?为什么国际贸易中交易的多是奢侈品呢?……为什么对次等货的消费多发生在产地而不是远离产地呢?原因就在于只要把运输费用、交易成本、税收等费用加到产品成本上去,就会产生阿尔钦——艾伦效应:消费者偏好将转向优质产品。对生产者来说,以优质产品相交换更有利可图。
成本理论
成本之于个人或组织—决策依据 边际成本与边际收益的比较 “没有免费午餐”(外国) “天上不会掉馅饼”(中国) “有得必有失”(中国) 就最一般的意义来说,所谓成本就是为了达到某种目的或获得某种商品所付出的代价。 关于成本的经典谚语 “没有免费午餐”(外国) “天上不会掉馅饼”(中国) “有得必有失”(中国) 舍不了孩子套不住狼(中国) …… 都是对成本概念的生动诠释。当得到某种东西的代价过于昂贵时,我们就会说,这样做 “得不偿失”
成本之于企业——关乎存亡 成本是经济学最基本的概念之一。获得产出需要投入,投入就会发生成本。利润是收益减去成本的余额。因而,成本是制约企业实现盈利目标的基本因素。成本函数和成本曲线反映了企业决策的重要约束条件。本章研究企业的成本函数和成本曲线,作为分析企业产量决策以及进入和退出决策的准备。
主要内容 一、生产成本及其概念 二、成本函数 三、短期成本函数 四、长期成本函数
一、生产成本及其概念 经济学所理解的成本概念与日常生活或者会计学意义上的成本概念存在区别,从而造成经济利润与会计利润的不同。 在经济分析中中所使用的成本概念,认为生产成本不仅是货币支出,而是作出一种选择而牺牲的其他选择。即使厂商投入的某些要素并不是花钱买来的,经济成本仍然存在,因为厂商牺牲了这些要素若用于别的用途可能带来的收益。
成本 显性成本 隐含成本 会计成本 变动成本 固定成本 经济成本 图5-1 成本的类型
1、显性成本vs.隐性成本: 显性成本 (Explicit Cost) 企业从市场上购买生产要素而支付货币所构成的成本; 隐性成本 (Implicit cost) 使用自有生产要素而支付的费用。区别在于购买的生产要素的所有权不同。
2、 经济成本vs.会计成本 经济成本(economic cost): 经济学家——并且我们希望还有企业的经理——对企业采取一种向前看的观点。他们关注于稀缺资源的合理配置。他们在意未来什么成本可能发生以及以什么方式企业可以重新组合其资源以降低成本和改进赢利能力。(用于经济决策) Cost to a firm of utilizing economic resources in production, including opportunity cost. Economists use the terms economics cost and opportunity cost synonymously. 厂商经营的总成本就是实际使用的所有资源的机会成本的总和。为明确起见,我们把如此计算出来的总成本称为厂商经营的生产成本或经济成本。因此,从经济成本的角度出发,厂商显性成本与隐性成本之和正好等于投入要素的机会成本。
会计成本(accounting cost) 指购买或生产某种物品过去和现在发生的财务费用或历史成本。由会计帐簿所记录,企业真实发生的成本。过去指向。(用于会计核算) Actual expenses plus depreciation charges for capital equipment. accounting cost can include items that a economics usually would not include and would not include items that economics usually do include 。
图5-2 经济成本 会计成本 vs. Forward-looking retrospective
经济利润与会计利润 经济利润=收益- 经济成本 (机会成本总和) 会计利润=收益- 会计成本 (显性成本)
机会成本(opportunity cost) 3、机会成本vs.沉没成本 机会成本(opportunity cost) 对于要素的所有者来说,如果一种生产要素被用于某一特定用途,它便放弃了在其他替代用途上可获取的种种收益,所放弃的收益中最大的收益就是这一特定用途的机会成本。 Cost associated with opportunities that are forgone when a firm’s resources are not put to their highest-value use. 机会成本存在的前提:生产要素是稀缺的而用途却是 竞争性的。
沉没成本(sunk cost)是指已经支出且无法收回的成本。 Expenditure that has been made and cannot be recovered. 经济学在决策时对于成本的考虑,与日常思维方式的不同之处在于:对于机会成本“斤斤计较”,对沉没成本则“既往不咎”。机会成本的存在,提醒要素的所有者,要尽可能有效地使用经济资源。
Example5.1 Choose the Location for a New Law school Building The Northwestern University Law School has been located in Chicago, along the shore of Lake Michigan. However, the main campus of the university is located in the suburb of Evanston. In the mid-1970s, the law school began planning the construction of a new building and needed to decide on appropriate location. Should it be built on the current site, where it would remain near downtown Chicago law firms? Or should it be moved to Evanston, Where it would become physical integrated with the rest of the university?
The downtown location had many prominent supporters The downtown location had many prominent supporters. They argued in part that it was cost-effective to locate the new building in the city because the university already owned the land. A large parcel of land would have to be purchased in Evanston if the building were to be built there. Does this argument make economic sense? In the end, Northwestern decided to keep the law school in Chicago location. This was a costly decision. It may have been appropriate if Chicago location was particularly valuable to the law school, but it was inappropriate if it was made on the presumption that the downtown land was without cost.
4、固定成本与变动成本 企业经营分为短期与长期,投入要素可分为固定投入与可变投入,相应地,在成本方面就有固定成本与可变成本的区分。 总成本 TC (Total Cost) Total economic cost of production, consisting of fixed and variable costs. 固定成本 FC (Fixed Cost ):支付给固定要素的费用。 Cost that does not vary with the level of output . 变动成本VC (Variable cost ) :支付给可变要素的费用。 Cost that varies as output varies.
固定成本 与 沉没成本的区别 固定成本 如关键管理人员的薪金,办公场地的支出 以及助部门的开销。如果停业可以避免; 固定成本 如关键管理人员的薪金,办公场地的支出 以及助部门的开销。如果停业可以避免; 沉没成本 则不然——一旦支出无法收回。
Example 5.2 Sunk, Fixed and Variable Costs: Computers, software, and Pizzas A firm’s pricing and production decision – and its profitability- depend on strongly on the structure of its costs. It is there important for managers to understand the characteristics of production costs and to be able to identify which costs are fixed, which are variable, and which are sunk. The relative size of these different cost components can vary considerably across industries. Good examples include the personal computer industry (where most costs are variable) , the computer software industry (where most costs are sunk), and the pizzeria business (where most costs are fixed). Let’s look at each of these in turn.
the personal computer industry (where most costs are variable) Companies like Dell, Compaq, and IBM produce millions of personal computers every year. Because the computers they produce are very similar, competition is intense, and profitability depend critically on the ability to keep costs down. Most of these cost are variable – they increase in proportion to the number of computer produced each year. Most important is the cost of components: the micropro-cess that does much of the actual computation, memory chips, hard disk drives and other storage device, video and sound cards, etc. Typically, the majority of these components are purchased from outside suppliers in quantities that depend on the number of computers produced.
Another important part of variable cost for these companies is labor Another important part of variable cost for these companies is labor.workers are needed to assemble the computers and then to package and ship them. There is little in the way of sunk cost because the factories cost little relative to the value of the company’s annual output. Likewise, there is little in the way of fixed costs – perhaps the salaries of the top executives, some security guards, and electricity Thus when Dell and IBM think about ways of reduc-ing cost, they focus largely on getting better prices for components or reducing labor requirement – both of which are ways of reducing variable cost .
the computer software industry (where most costs are sunk) What about the software programs that run on these personal computers? Microsoft produces the windows operating system as well as variety of applications such as Word, Excel, and PowerPoint. The cost of production for such firms are quite different from those facing hardware manufacturers. In software production most are sunk. Typically, a software firm will spend a large amount of money to develop a new application program. These expenditures cannot be recovered.
Once the program is completed, the company can try to recoup its investment (and make a profit as well) by selling as many copies of the program as possible. The variable cost of producing copies of the program is very small – it is largely the cost of coping the program to floppy disks or CDs and then packaging and ship the product. Likewise, the fixed cost of production is small. Because most costs are sunk, entering software business can involve considerable risk. Until the development money has been spent and the product has been released for sale, an entrepreneur is unlikely to known how many copies can be sold and whether or not he will be able to make money.
the pizzeria business (where most costs are fixed) For the pizzeria, the largest component of cost is fixed. Sunk cost are fairly low because pizza oven, chairs, tables, and dishes can be resold if the pizzeria goes out of business. Variable cost are also fairly low – mainly the ingredient for pizza ( flour, tomato sauce, cheese, and pepperoni for typical large pizza might cost $1) and perhaps wages for a couple of work to help produce, serve, and deliver the pizza. Most of the cost is fixed – the opportunity cost of the owner’s time, rent, and utility. Because of these high fixed costs, most pizzerias (which might charge $10 for a large pizza costing about $3 in variable cost to produce) don’t make very high profits.
5、关于短期与长期 短期厂商所作的决策是在既定的生产规模下,即资本要素的数量和质量不变的前提下作出决策,这种决策是确定可变要素的投入数量或要素的组合比例,以获得每单位产品的最低的平均成本——寻求最优产出率; 长期,厂商在所有的生产要素的数量和质量都是可变的条件下,所作的决策是寻找最佳生产规模来生产实现计划的产量,一旦厂商选择了一个特定的生产规模,它的产量决策马上又转化为短期的决策。
二、短期成本函数(SRTC) 总成本 TC 固定成本 (短期) 边际成本 平均可变成本AVC 1、主要成本指标 及其相互关系 平均成本 固定成本 (短期) 变动成本 边际成本 平均成本 平均可变成本AVC 平均固定成本AFC (短期)
AC最小 若 P=MR=MC=AC 则收支相抵点 AVC最小 若P=MR=MC=AVC 则 停止营业点
2、短期成本的变动规律 表5-1一个企业的短期成本
成本函数 成本方程 A B MC=AVC 图5-3 短期成本曲线 TC C VC FC MC=AC 收支相抵点 MC AC AVC AFC Q MC AC AVC FC C 图5-3 短期成本曲线 A B MC=AC 收支相抵点 成本方程 MC=AVC 停止营业点
3、关于MC、AC、AVC关系的推论 1°MC、AVC、AC皆先下降后上升而呈“U”形, MC、 AVC、AC相继达到最低点; 2° MC↓ AVC ↓ AC 必然↓(AC=AFC+AVC ); AVC不必马上↑ 3° AC不必马上↑ 只要MC绝对水平仍然低于AVC,则尽管MC上升,AVC仍会下降。MC持续上升与AVC持续下降,二者终究会在某一点相交,此时,AVC达到它的最低点,之后则由下降转为上升。 因为只要MC绝对水平低于AC,则MC上升时,AC仍然会下降。MC持续上升与AC持续下降,二者终究会在某一点相交,此时,AC达到它的最低点,之后则由下降转为上升。平均成本最小值对应的产出量是有效规模产量。 当MC↑时
4°AVC与AC曲线都会↑,但是由于AC曲线需要分摊固定成本,它永远会高于AVC曲线。 5° MC先与AVC相交,再与AC相交。 当AVC最低时,AFC还会下降,AC还未达到最低点
U形MC、AC曲线的经济含义—边际收益变动规律 对U形MC曲线的一般经济解释是,在雇佣数量较少工人时,工人之间劳动协作和配合可能会使劳动效率更快提高,从而使新增工人带来的产出增加大于此前每个工人能够创造出的出的产量。由于新增工人数量能够在边际意义上提高劳动效率,结果使边际成本在产出数量较低阶段下降。即给定作业小组最佳人数范围内,生产效率提高即边际成本下降。然而,给定设备等固定投入条件,随着雇工人数增加,更多的工人在一起干活会出现“窝工”现象,劳动边际收益递减规律发生作用,劳动边际产出下降。劳动边际产出下降意味着生产边际成本上升。边际成本先降后升,构成U形曲线。 即边际收益经历递增、不变到递减的过程。
三、长期成本函数(LRTC) 短期与长期 短期——厂商所作的决策是在既定的生产规模下,即资本要素的数量和质量不变的前提下作出决策,这种决策是确定可变要素的投入数量或要素的组合比例,以获得每单位产品的最低的平均成本——寻求最优产出率; 长期——厂商在所有的生产要素的数量和质量都是可变的条件下,所作的决策是寻找最佳生产规模来生产实现计划的产量,一旦厂商选择了一个特定的生产规模,它的产量决策马上又转化为短期的决策。
1、长期总成本(LTC) STC包络线 2、长期平均成本(LAC) 3、长期边际成本(LMC) 4、LMC与LAC关系 STC1 STC2 STC3 LTC C Q Q1 Q2 Q3 STC包络线 (envelope curve) 2、长期平均成本(LAC) SAC包络线。 SAC最低点最优产出率 LAC最低点最佳工厂规模 Q LAC 图6-6 LTC、LAC、LMC曲线 SAC E LMC Q1 Q2 Q3 3、长期边际成本(LMC) 由LTC推出:LTC同一产量时的斜率。 4、LMC与LAC关系 两者相交于LAC曲线的最低点E 左侧: MC<AC 规模报酬递增 右侧: MC>AC 规模报酬递减
U形LAC曲线的经济含义—规模报酬变动规律 递减 不变 递增 Q 规模报酬图解 C LMC LAC E L、K单位数 O Q1 Q2 Q3 Q MC<AC MC>AC MC=MC 图中显示的三种收益既可相互独立——不同规模的厂商显示出不同的规模报酬; 又可互相关联——即一种生产技术在不同的生产水平上显示出不同的规模报酬,即任何厂商在扩大其规模时,都是先经过一个规模的报酬递增阶段,然后经过收益不变阶段,再经过一个规模的收益递减阶段。
MC与AC之间的关系与规模报酬的联系 图5-4 MC与AC之间的关系与规模报酬的联系 MC<AC,则AC下降,规模报酬递增。 Q MC AC (c)规模报酬递减 AC MC AC=MC Q (a)规模报酬递增 (b)规模报酬不变 图5-4 MC与AC之间的关系与规模报酬的联系 MC<AC,则AC下降,规模报酬递增。 MC=AC,则AC是一条水平线;规模报酬不变; MC>AC,则AC一直上升,一定会有规模报酬递减.
例1 生产函数为 ,劳动和资本的价格分别为PL和PK,试求相应的成本函数。 四、由生产函数推求成本函数 例1 生产函数为 ,劳动和资本的价格分别为PL和PK,试求相应的成本函数。 方法 实际上,在短期中,每种生产规模都是最低成本规模。由此,我们可以将成本函数的确定转化为在给定产量下确定成本最小的问题。通过构造拉格朗日函数,便可确定各生产要素之间的关系,代入生产函数求出成本函数。
【步骤】
解读成本 苹果与阿尔钦——艾伦定理 我们在超级市场里常常能看到品种繁多的进口水果(产自外国或本国的外地)各个色泽鲜艳,果实饱满,形状均匀可人。不明白的人往往感叹外国的东西好、技术先进。其实但他当有机会去这些水果的产地走一走,市场上地产的水果却不像他以前所见到的那样,他一定会感到困惑的。 岂止是我们有此困惑。在华盛顿州,有人注意到质优味美的华盛顿苹果都被运往别处。其实,这种现象非常普遍。难道质量最优的水果在它们的产地就找不到吗?这种现象着实有点令人费解,因为它与常识相矛盾。
总有喜欢较真的人,这便有了下面的故事。一位愤怒的消费者在写给《西雅图时报》的信里抱怨在当地的水果店里买不到优质苹果,他写到: 为什么当地市场上的华盛顿苹果又小又难呢?最近,几个采摘苹果的朋友带来了一些他们刚摘的苹果,这些苹果至少是那些能在当地市场买到的苹果的四倍大。这些美味大苹果都到那里去了呢?它们被运往欧洲或中东地区了吗?在西雅图这里能买得到吗?
阿尔钦——艾伦对此的回答是,假定商品在运往目的地的过程中没有发生损坏、腐烂或其他质量上的改变,如果优质苹果和劣质苹果如果运输费用相同,那么,在进口地优质苹果变得相对便宜,因而对优质苹果的需求量要大。换句话说,进口地对优质苹果的消费比例比产地要高。这样就消费者所抱怨的情形便出现了。这不是在耍什么花招,只不过是需求规律在起作用。
对美味苹果的讨论引出了众所周知的“阿尔钦——艾伦”定理。根据该定理,当相同的附加成本被加到两个相似的商品价格上时,其结果是人们会增加对优质产品的相对消费量。因此,优质产品很可能被出口。 这种阿尔钦——艾伦效应在很多市场上都能看到。加利福尼亚的橘子和葡萄、意大利的皮革制品、法国的葡萄酒、德克萨斯的牛肉、哥伦比亚的咖啡、夏威夷的凤梨、华盛顿的橘子、华盛顿的苹果……。
阿尔钦——艾伦对这个问题作了进一步的扩展,指出:为什么亚洲人从美国进口的高价车比低价车多呢?为什么国际贸易中交易的多是奢侈品呢?……为什么对次等货的消费多发生在产地而不是远离产地呢?原因就在于只要把运输费用、交易成本、税收等费用加到产品成本上去,就会产生阿尔钦——艾伦效应:消费者偏好将转向优质产品。对生产者来说,以优质产品相交换更有利可图。
本章结束,谢谢!