第二章 導論

大綱 2.1 基本內容及組織 2.2 步驟一：背景資料 2.3 步驟二：文獻回顧 2.4 文獻回顧常用句型 2.5 名詞子句中的動詞時態

2.1 基本內容及組織 背景資料中四項重點 內容 目標 動機 和其它相關領域的關係 常以反向順序撰寫

導論中基本步驟 步驟一：背景資料 步驟二：文獻回顧 步驟三：指出問題 步驟四：研究活動或目的 步驟五：該研究的理論或應用價值 步驟六：論文的組織架構

Example：The Effect of Indentation on Program Comprehension 步驟一：背景資料 Managers of data-processing centers and other organizations often find it practical to establish standards regarding the format of computer programs. The use of programming standards may make programs easier to comprehend and thus may enhance programmer productivity. In recent years, a variety of standards have been proposed in the literature. Yet often these proposals are offered with no more foundation than the experiences of a small number of professionals. To be effective, programming standards must be based on empirical [基於經驗(觀察)的] data concerning program comprehension and the factors that affect it.

步驟二：文獻回顧 A number of researchers have begun to collect empirical evidence regarding the effects of various factors on program comprehension. Woodfield et al. (1981) investigated modularization and comments and found that subjects given programs containing comments were able to answer more questions correctly about the program than those who did not have comments and that subjects given an abstract data type version of the program could answer more questions correctly than those given any of three other types of modularization. Sheppard et al. (1979) studied the effect of structured coding and mnemonic [增進記憶的] variable names on program comprehension. They found that unstructured programs were the most difficult to reconstruct and that there were no differences in program comprehension among the levels of variable mnemonicity.

Shneiderman (1976) compared the logical and arithmetic IF statements of Fortran and found modest [適度的] support for the hypothesis that beginning programmers tend to find the logical IF easier than the arithmetic IF, whereas experienced programmers find them equally difficult. Green (1977) investigated nested and jumping-styled forms of the conditional statement in the context of two typical programming tasks: tracing and reporting the truth-conditions needed to reach a point in the program. He found that both tasks took longer when the program conditionals were written in the jump form.

步驟三：指出問題 Although these studies have provided much valuable information on the relationship between various factors and program comprehension, there are still many factors that have not yet been explored.

步驟四：研究目的 This paper describes an empirical study that investigated the effect of indentation on program comprehension. We tested three different indentation styles for the same program control structures: no indentation, moderate indentation, and excessive indentation.

步驟五：研究價值 The results of this study may be of interest to managers and educators attempting to develop programming standards and to researchers interested in the psychological [心理的] aspects of computer programming.

2.2 步驟一：背景資料 闡述內容的重要性 約定俗成的作法 說明該主題和其研究領域的關係 提供足夠的背景資料 指出和論文相關的一般事實 將焦點從大領域轉向其中次領域，並指出某特定事實 將焦點集中在更狹窄的主題並指出某事實

Example [1st句題目範圍：programming behavior] 1As research into human factors in software development continues, it has become important to develop a detailed cognitive [認知的] model of programming behavior.[2nd & 3rd句題目範圍：comprehension] 2One of the major components of programming behavior is comprehension. 3Comprehension is involved in nearly all aspects of programming work, including writing, debugging, and modifying software. [4th & 5th句題目範圍：psychological complexity] 4Thus factors that relate to program comprehension must be explored. 5One of these factors is psychological complexity, which one expert has defined as "characteristics that make it difficult for humans to understand software.”

psychological complexity 1st句題目範圍 programming behavior 2nd &3rd句題目範圍 comprehension 4th&5th句題目範圍 psychological complexity Psychological：心理的

介紹背景資料 考慮讀者群 先舊後新 專業領域裡的專家 → 簡短 來自不同領域的學者 → 較完整 每句中先重複舊訊息，再提新訊息 舊訊息能發揮引導作用，讓讀者易於瞭解每句內容及整段落重點

Example As research into human factors in software development continues, it has become important to develop a detailed cognitive model of programming behavior. One of the major components of programming behavior is comprehension. Comprehension is involved in nearly all aspects of programming work, including writing, debugging, and modifying software. Thus factors that relate to program comprehension must be explored. One of these factors is psychological complexity, which one expert has defined as “characteristics that make it difficult for humans to understand software”.

時態 現在簡單式 敘述某現象的普遍事實 現在完成式 描述從過去即開始並持續到現在的趨勢或事件 表示某個事件是最近才發生

Example [現在簡單式] Managers of data-processing centers often find it practical to establish programming standards.  Comprehension is involved in nearly all aspects of programming work, including writing, debugging, and modifying software. The use of programming standards may make programs easier to comprehend.

Example [現在完成式] As the standard of living has improved in the last ten years, beer, a Western beverage, has become very popular in China. In recent years, a variety of standards have been proposed in the literature. Beverage：飲料

2.3 步驟二：文獻回顧 闡明研究背景及動機 表示對其它相關研究的熟悉 界定和其它研究的關係及區別

文獻回顧的長度 專業學術期刊 有時只含幾個句子 通常至少有一兩個段落 博士論文 整個獨立章節 引述參考資料的目的 不在於證明作者文章看得很多 在於進一步闡明研究動機與目的 表示該研究能提供新的資料或解決某種問題

文獻回顧的組織形式 Type I [關係密切性] 先提關係較不密切的參考資料 再提關係較密切的參考資料

Example：Wheat Residue Loss from Soil Surface under No-till [耕作] Management Several laboratory studies have been conducted to determine actual decomposition [變質，腐敗] rates of wheat [小麥] and other small grain [榖物] straws [稻草] -using 14C-labeled plant material. Martin et al. (1980), using optimal conditions of -33 kPa water potential and 23°C, determined that 74% of the carbon in wheat straw evolved into the atmosphere as CO2 after 2 years. A companion study showed that after 1 year the 14C from wheat straw that had not evolved as CO2 could be accounted for [計入] in the soil [土壤] microbial [微生物] biomass [生物量] (Stott et al., 1983).

Most field studies [實地考察] have used straw-filled cloth or fiberglass [玻璃纖維] bags buried in soil, and decomposition has been measured as weight loss. Smith and Douglas (1968) noted an average 44% weight loss in 12 weeks from buried wheat straw. In another study, weight loss from straw of 23 varieties of small grains ranged from 54% to 75% after 1 year (Smith and Peckenpaugh, 1986).

Few studies have been done on surface-residue [殘留物] loss Few studies have been done on surface-residue [殘留物] loss. Brown and Dickey (1970) used fiberglass bags to compare decomposition rates of buried straw and straw left on the soil surface. Over 1.5 years, surface straw disappeared at one-third the rate of buried straw. A study by Douglas et al. (1980) showed similar results after 2 years.

Type II [時間順序] 依時間順序排列參考文獻

Example：Wind Pressures on Buildings with Mullions [豎框;輻射狀框] The effect of mullions [窗櫺] on wind pressures on buildings has not been extensively examined. Hoerner (1957) discussed the effects of vertical ribs [在…上起羅紋] on a circular cylindrical storage tank [環狀圓柱體儲存槽] and reported that the suction [抽吸裝置] peaks are eliminated by ribs on the outside structure of the storage tank. The drag [拖，拉], however, is higher on a cylinder with ribs than on a tank with a smooth surface. Leutheusser (1970) performed a series of wind tunnel [風洞] studies on building models with various architectural details, including mullions. Other than very local effects of wind-induced pressures between mullions, the overall trend for most regions showed no difference between the cases with and without mullions. Mullions：豎框;輻射狀框

Roshko (1970) also carried out tests on circular and prismatic [棱鏡的] cylinders in an aeronautical wind tunnel and discussed the effect of surface roughness modeled by mullion-like grooves [紋道，溝紋]. He reported that the pressure distribution depended on the Reynolds number [(物體在流體中的)雷諾數].

The effect of the Reynolds number was also discussed by Standen et al The effect of the Reynolds number was also discussed by Standen et al. (1971), who attempted pressure measurements on a full-scale building with mullions, as well as on a wind tunnel model of the building. They deduced that the scale of the mullions should be proportional to the local boundary-layer thickness. Templin and Cermak (1976) carried out full-scale and wind tunnel studies concerning the effect of mullions on wind-induced loads on buildings and found that the mullions reduced the magnitude of the mean and RMS pressures on the sides of the building on which the main flow reattached after separating from the upwind [逆風的] corner. Finally, Leadon and Kownacki (1979) discussed fluctuating pressures generated by I-shaped external mullions on a curtain wall in a two-dimensional flow.

Type III [分類＋關係密切性＋時間順序] 將參考資料分為幾個不同類別 依關係密切性或時間順序討論各類文獻

Example：Back Pain and Exposure to Whole Body Vibration in Helicopter Pilots [直升機駕駛員] In several epidemiological [免疫學的，流行病學的] studies on back pain in helicopter pilots, a distinction has been made between transient [短暫的] back pain and chronic [長期的] back pain (Shanahan et al., 1986; Froom et al., 1986). According to Bowden (1987), chronic back pain might be compared to idiopathic [先天的] low back pain in the general population. Back pain prevalences [普及] in helicopter pilots reported by several authors vary from 21 to 95% (Schulte-Wintrop and Knoche 1978; Fischer et al. 1980; Delahay et al., 1982). The prevalence of back pain during or shortly after flight ranges from 34 to 64%. Back pain not primarily associated with flight is reported in 11 to 27% of the respondents (Shanahan et al., 1986; Froom et al, 1986).... Pilot：飛行員

A number of experimental studies have also been conducted A number of experimental studies have also been conducted. In a mock-up [全尺寸(實體)模型] of a UH-1H helicopter seat and control configurations, 11 subjects were asked to adopt [採納] the posture [體姿] they assumed in normal flight and were tested for two separate periods of 120 min, one with simulated helicopter vibration and one without (Shanahan and Reading, 1984). No significant difference was found between the vibration and non-vibration conditions for either time of onset [攻擊，發作] or intensity [強烈] of pain. Pope et al. (1986) tested the change in muscle response due to sustained [支撐] posture and vibration in a simulated UH-1H cockpit [座艙]. Marginally significant fatigue [疲勞] occurred only as a result of the sustained static posture. In contrast, all tests both with and without vibration produced discomfort in the lower back.

Froom et al. (1987) compared the onset and intensity of back pain between aviators [飛行員] occupying the pilot‘s seat and the gunner’s [炮手] seat of a helicopter. Most pilots experienced pain or discomfort in both positions. However, the intensity was greater and the onset of the pain quicker in the pilot's seat....

2.4 文獻回顧常用句型 2.4.1 資料導向引述 2.4.2 研究程度描述 2.4.3 多作者導向引述 2.4.4 作者導向引述

2.4.1 資料導向引述 重點 被引述文獻之作者的姓氏及出版年代放在句尾兩個括號中 敘述和研究內容相關之一般事實 句子的主要焦點為某些「資料」 被引述文獻之作者的姓氏及出版年代放在句尾兩個括號中

兩種標準格式 Example：(James, 1985) Example：(1,2,4) 參考文獻作者的姓氏及出版年代放在句尾括號內 參考文獻序號放在括號內 Example：(1,2,4)

常用動詞時態 簡單現在式 引述資料為不受時間影響的普遍事實 現在完成式 引述資料描述某種趨勢或變動 過去式 引述資料陳述過去事件或事實

Example [簡單現在式] [crop：莊稼，decompose：腐化，分解]

Example [現在完成式] Outbreak：突然爆發 Dengue：登革熱

Example [過去式]

2.4.2 研究程度描述 重點 表示對某個問題的研究程度 描述內容 從過去持續到現在的一種研究趨勢 通常使用現在完成式 研究主題 此為討論焦點 常採用被動語態

主題在動詞後 [Boron：硼，Doping：麻藥，Prevalence：流行]

說明 第一、二列 主詞是不可數 (work, research, attention) 動詞須使用單數形 第三列 主詞是可數且是複數 (studies, experiments) 動詞須使用複數形

指出有些人曾研究該問題 Several, a number of Ex：Several studies have been done on X. 強調研究該問題的人極少 Few, little Ex Few studies have been done on Y. Little research has been done on Y.

上例中，主題都出現在動詞後；也可把主題當作主詞 使用被動或主動語態，須視該動詞意思而定

主題當作主詞 + 主動語態

主題當作主詞 + 被動語態

其它句型 使用虛主詞結構指出對某問題的研究程度

2.4.3 多作者導向引述 重點 一個句子描述兩位以上學者曾進行的研究 動詞時態 因描述從過去到現在的研究趨勢，應使用現在完成式 被引述文獻的資料放在句尾括號中

主詞 強調曾研究該問題的學者很少時 few writers few researchers 如有些學者曾研究該問題 several writers several researchers

Explore：探究，探索

其它句型 以that開頭的名詞子句 該名詞子句描述某些學者的研究結果

2.4.4 作者導向引述 重點 動詞時態 將焦點轉移到自己研究相關的個別參考資料 詳細檢討這些文獻的研究結果 使用個別學者的姓氏當句子主詞 句子內容是指學者過去的行為，主要動詞用過去式

被引述的研究結果 作者導向引述中有兩個動詞 緊接主要動詞後 以that開頭的名詞子句中敘述 1st 動詞 句子的主要動詞，通常使用過去式 2nd動詞 以that開頭之名詞子句中的動詞 時態依子句所表達資料的性質而定

作者導向引述

其它句型 將作者導向引述分成兩個句子 第一句 只描述某學者的研究活動 主要動詞使用過去式 第二句 敘述研究結果 須包括以that開頭的名詞子句，但省略出版年代

2.5 名詞子句中的動詞時態 作者導向引述及多作者導向引述都包括兩個動詞 主要動詞 描述被引述之學者的活動 以that開頭之名詞子句中的動詞 描述該學者所提出的資料或研究結果

以that開頭名詞子句的動詞時態視內容分為 資料為普遍事實 資料只在特定情形下才有效 資料只表示一種建議或假設 對引述資料的評語

2.5.1 子句中的資料為普遍事實 2.5.2 子句中的資料只在特定情形下才有效 2.5.3 子句中的資料只表示一種建議或假設 2.5.4 對引述資料的評語

2.5.1 子句中的資料為普遍事實 以that開頭的名詞子句中所提的資料屬不受時間影響之普遍事實 動詞使用現在式 [Gravity：重力，Moon：衛星，Orbit：運行軌道]

描述其他學者曾提出的技術或方法 提出的行為是過去行為 若方法本身已成為一種標準方法或仍有人應用，可視為不受時間影響的事實，動詞使用現在式 若方法或技術已過時而沒人使用，則使用過去式動詞

2.5.2 子句中的資料只在特定 情形下才有效 該研究雖有某些成果，但尚未被視為普遍事實 在that子句中的動詞使用過去式

2.5.3 子句中的資料只表示 一種建議或假設 若引述資料用試探方式敘述，或該資料不過是一些建議或假設而非確定的結果 主要動詞改為suggested或hypothesized之類臆測動詞 在that開頭的子句使用現在式動詞，並在動詞前加上如may之語態助動詞

2.5.4 對引述資料的評語 先描述某學者的研究工作，再對該研究提出評語 描述研究工作的句子應使用過去式動詞 表示作者評語的句子 如指過去行為或事件 → 使用過去式 如指不受時間影響或目前仍有效的事實 → 使用現在式

下述例子，描述研究工作的第一個句子皆使用過去式 Rogers (1982) performed the first systematic study of this illness. His data provided the starting point for many later investigations. 評語內容為過去的事件，使用過去式動詞 Smith (1978) presented a method for solving problems of this form when x≦1. However, his method is not applicable to the general case.  評語內容為不受時間影響的事實或目前仍然有效的事實，使用現在式動詞

使用過去式暗示句子所表達的事情已過去，因史密斯的方法及它的限制都是很久以前的事，或現已無人使用該方法 Smith (1978) presented a method for solving problems of this form when x≦1. However, his method was not applicable to the general case. 使用過去式暗示句子所表達的事情已過去，因史密斯的方法及它的限制都是很久以前的事，或現已無人使用該方法