Policies Against Poverty in the Eu Countries: A Comparative Analysis 欧盟各国的扶贫政策:比较分析 Michele Raitano (Sapienza University of Rome) 罗马一大 Training Programme “Effects and Tendency of Income Redistribution Policy” 收入再分配政策的调节效果和调整趋势培训团 Italy, October 14th-28th, 2018 2018年10月14日至28日 意大利
Outline 大纲 Definition of poverty 贫困的定义 Redistributive policies affecting risks of being poor 对贫困风险产生影响的再分配政策 Social spending in EU countries 欧盟国家的社会支出 Minimum income schemes (MIS) in EU countries 欧盟国家的最低收入体系(MIS) The role of the pension system in protecting against poverty 养老制度对支持扶贫的作用
Who are the poor? A brief reminder 谁是贫困人士?简要提示 Poverty related to households’ resources and needs. 贫困与家庭的收入来源和需求有关 Poverty requires to identify poor => a threshold has to be identified. 贫困需要鉴别=>贫困线需要确定 Usually, absolute vs relative poverty concepts. 通常来说,分别绝对贫困和相对贫困概念 Poverty measured looking at both incidence and intensity (not only the headcount). 对贫困的衡量同时考虑发生率和强度(并不只是总人数) Redistributive policies may reduce poverty intensity also when the incidence is not affected. 在发生率不变的情况下,再分配政策也能够降低贫困强度
Absolute poverty: a reminder 绝对贫困:提示 The threshold is defined outside from the income distribution. 贫困线的确定独立于收入分配 A basket of basic needs is identified => the threshold is the cost of such basket. 确定一篮子需求=> 贫困线是这些需求的成本 Daily caloric requirements? Two dollars per day? 每日的卡路里需求量?两美元一天? How to define such basket? Does the basket include absolute or relative needs? 怎样确定这个篮子?篮子包括绝对需求或相对需求吗? How do needs change? Between countries and in the long term 需求发生了怎样的变化?不同国家、长期 Are basket goods indexed only to prices? Which are the consequences? 篮子里的物品只与物价具有指数化关系吗?后果是什么?
Relative poverty (a): a reminder 相对贫困(一):提示 Poverty is a social norm: individuals very far from the others are poor. The threshold is by definition a relative concept. 贫困是一个社会规范:远离其他人的个体属于贫困人群。贫困线按照定义是一个相对贫困概念。 As a main social norm is poor who is far from the others => if the GDP changes also the threshold has to change. 远离其他人的个人是贫困人群是一个主要的社会规范=>如果GDP发生变化,贫困线也需要改变。 Reference to living standards of the whole population => the threshold is identified according to some points of the income distribution, i.e. 60% of median income or 50% of mean income. 参照所有人口的生活标准=>根据收入分配的一些指标确定贫困线,如收入中位线的60%,或平均收入的50%。 Poverty does not change if income change in the same proportion. 如果收入变化的比例相同,则贫困不会发生变化。 But “income paradox”, when the growth is not “pro poor”. 但是当经济增长不是有利于贫困人群的,则会发生“收入悖论”。
Relative poverty (b): a reminder 相对贫困(二):提示 How to make international comparisons of relative poverty? Is a country with a higher poverty a poorer country? 怎样对相对贫困做比较研究?一个高贫困率的国家是一个更加贫困的国家吗? It is a sort of inequality index in the lower tail than a mere measure of material deprivation. 这是一种底端的分配不公指数,而不仅是对物质匮乏的衡量。 Keeping constant the threshold to make comparisons overtime (especially during a crisis)? 坚持贫困线不变,并进行比较研究(尤其是在危机期间)? When analysing policy changes (e.g. an increase in welfare transfers), the relative thresholds has to be changed too. 在分析政策变化时(例如增加福利待遇的转移支付),相对贫困线也要改变。 Note that absolute poverty does not necessarily mean extreme poverty and it is not necessarily lower than relative poverty (thresholds can be built on different logics). 注意绝对贫困并不一定意味着极度贫困,也不一定比相对贫困更低(贫困线建立在不同的逻辑上)。
Redistributive policies against poverty 扶贫的再分配政策 Citizenship incomes 公民收入 Social insurance schemes 社会保险体系 Contributory based social insurances (e.g., pensions and UB) 缴费型社会保险(如养老和UB) Means tested social insurance benefits (e.g., ASDI in Italy) 对申请者进行家计调查的社会保险福利(如意大利的失业补助) Social assistance schemes (safety nets), based on means testing 基于家计调查的社会救助体系(安全网) Categorical (e.g., the unemployed, the elderly, those with children 分类别的(例如失业、老年、儿童) MIS (independent on households’ categories) 最低收入体系(根据家庭的类别) In kind services (housing, health care; targeted or non targeted) 实物型服务(住房、医疗;有特殊目标群体或无特殊目标群体) Specific universal or targeted measures towards children and family 对儿童和家庭提供的普惠制措施或特别措施 Are these policies based on households or individuals’ conditions? 这些政策是根据家庭或个人情况吗? What is the duration of these policies? 这些政策的持续时间是多长? How binding are eligibility requirements? 资格要求的约束力是什么? How much do these policies affect incidence and intensity of poverty (absolute or relative)? 这些政策对(相对或绝对)贫困发生率和强度的影响有多大?
Spending for social protection benefits in EU15 in 2015 (% of GDP) 2015年欧盟15国社保福利指出(对GDP的百分比)
Composition of social protection spending 社保支出的构成 疾病/卫生 残疾、老年和生存人员 失业 住房、家庭和社会排斥
Cash and in-kind benefits 现金和实物福利
Means and non means tested benefits 家计调查和非家计调查型福利
Decrease in the incidence of relative poverty due to welfare transfers in EU15 欧盟15国福利体系转移支付带来的相对贫困发生率下降 转移支付高于养老 养老高于转移支付
Historical Evolution of Anti-Poverty Policies (a) 反贫困政策的历史发展情况(一) «First generation»: anti-poverty policies 第一代:反贫困政策 «Second generation»: minimum income schemes 第二代:最低收入计划 Act for the Relief of the Poor (1601): 穷人救济法案(1601年) Discretional, residual and ad hoc support for the poor, frequently implying that recipients lost their civil and (to the extent they had any) political rights => Function: social control and repression of marginality 对穷人的自由决议、剩余的和特别支持,通常意味着领取人失去了公民和社 会权利=>功能:社会控制和对排斥的抑制 Guarantee of a minimum of resources for those (few) people who needed a safety net in a period in which “full employment” and social insurances guaranteed support to all workers and their families =>Function: income support and prevention of marginality 保证那些(少数)需要安全网的人群在一定时期内的最低收入来源,“充分就业”和社会保险保证所有职工及其家庭=>功能:支持收入和防止边缘化
Year of Introduction 推出年份 The introduction of MIS in Europe (1945 – 1990) 欧洲最低收入体系发展情况介绍(1945年-1990年) Country 国家 Scheme 计划 Year of Introduction 推出年份 Austria 奥地利 Sozialhilfe 1971 (Varies in different Land until 2009) Belgium 比利时 Minimex 1974 Denmark 丹麦 Social Bistand (1891) 1974 Finland 芬兰 Toimeentulotuki 1971 France 法国 Revenu Minimum d’Insertion 1988 Germany 德国 1961 Ireland 爱尔兰 Supplementary Welfare Allowance 1975 Sweden 瑞典 Socialbidrag (1918), 1956 Luxembourg 卢森堡 Revenu Minimum Garanti 1986 Netherlands 荷兰 Algemeene Bijstand (Social Bijstand) 1963 (1996) UK 英国 Income Support 1948, 1978 Greece 希腊 Italy 英国 Spain 西班牙 Portugal 葡萄牙
Historical Evolution of Anti-Poverty Policies (b) 反贫困政策的历史发展情况(二) «Third generation»: active inclusion strategies 第三代:积极的包容战略 Towards an universal basic income? 迈向一个普惠制基本收入? Law proposals in France - Referendum in Switzerland 法国的法律提案—瑞士公投 Pilot schemes in Finlands and in the Netherlands 芬兰和荷兰的试点方案 Guarantee of a minimum income 保证最低收入 Access to social services 获得社会服务 Right/duty to be «active» in job-search activities 权利/义务是积极的寻找工作 Active inclusion strategies supported by the EU 欧洲支持的积极的包容战略 Function: income support plus empowerment and promotion of social inclusion to break the vicious circle of inactivity, obsolete skills and competences, and demotivation 功能:收入支持以及权力和促进社会包容,以打破不积极劳动、技能和素质过时、消极不工作的恶性循环。
Definition of MIS 最低收入体系的定义 Monetary benefit paid regularly to all households with an income below the poverty line, associated with social and labour market services aimed at “re-integrating the beneficiaries in the society” 货币福利,定期向所有低于贫困线的低收入家庭发放,并配合其他社会服务和劳动力市场服务;其目标是“将受益人重新融入社会”。 Various types of means testing 各类不同的家计调查 Provision of benefit: independent from contributory requirements 福利的规定:不同于缴费型福利 Funding: general taxation 经费来源:一般类税收 Addressed to working age individuals (elderly have often different and more generous schemes, with different eligibility requirements), not eligible for social insurance payments or whose entitlement to these payments has expired 针对劳动年龄的个人,不适用于支付社会保险或此类支付资格已经过期的个人。
The three pillars of MIS 最低收入体系的三个支柱 A means-tested income support benefit (means testing at the household level => benefits based on equivalence scales) 经过家计调查提供的收入支持福利(家庭层面的调查=> 福利根据均等比 计算) Access to social services 获得社会服务 Analysis of households skills / competences / social and individual problems; drafting personalized social inclusion plans; psychological and / or health and / or financial support 分析家庭的技能、 素质能力、社会和个人问题;针对家庭问题制定社会融合方案;心理和/或健康和/或财务 支持 «Active Inclusion policies» 积极融合政策 Active (and preventive) labour market policies, training, human capital investment, introduction of specific “job incentives”, including conditionality of income support benefits and/or specific tax deduction 积极(和预防性)劳动力市场政策、培训、人力资源投入、引入具体的“就业奖 励”,包括收入支持福利和/或特别税收减免。 In some countries (AT, ES, GR, FI, FR, PT, SE) MIS as last resort safety net when means testing unemployment benefits have expired. 在一些国家(奥地利、西班牙、德国、芬兰、法国、葡 萄牙、瑞典),当经过家计调查提供的失业福利过期时,最低收入体系是安全网的最后手 段。
Generosity of MIS in EU 欧盟最低收入体系的发放额度 Country 国家 Basic amount % of relative poverty threshold 基本额度,相对贫困线的百分比 Amount for couples with two children % of relative pov. Threshold 对有两个子女的夫妻的发放额度,相对贫困线的百分比 Latvia 拉脱维亚 17.1% 32.50% Slovakia 斯洛伐克 17.8% 22% Bulgaria 保加利亚 19.9% 33% Estonia 爱沙尼亚 22.8% 41.3% Italy (2018) 意大利 23.7% 30.8% Romania 罗马尼亚 27,6% 41,1% Sweden 瑞典 33.4% 49.4% Czech Republic 捷克 33.9% 49.6% United Kingdom 英国 37.7% 36.7% Germany 德国 39.1% 60.1% Lithuania 立陶宛 39.4% 60% Croatia 克罗地亚 39.6% 45.2% Finland 芬兰 40.9% 60.9% Portugal 葡萄牙 42.2% Slovenia 斯洛文尼亚 43.9% 64.8% France 法国 48.9% Greece 希腊 53.2% 50.7% Spain 西班牙 65.3% 43.3% Ireland 爱尔兰 69.3% 65.4% Austria 奥地利 72% 63.8% Belgium 比利时 77% Netherlands 荷兰 85.1% Denmark 丹麦 102.50% 138%
Duration of MIS 最低收入体系的发放时间 Country 国家 Unlimited 不限 BG CH CZ DE DK HR LI MT NL NO PL SE UK 保加利亚、瑞士、捷克、德国、丹麦、匈牙利、列支敦士登、马耳他、荷兰、挪威、波兰、瑞典、英国 Unlimited, but periodical assessment of eligilibility requirements 不限,但是对收益资格进行周期性评估 AT BE CY EE FI FR HU IE IS LU LV MK PT RO RS SI SK, Some ES regions 奥地利、比利时、塞浦路斯、爱沙尼亚、芬兰、法国、匈牙利、爱尔兰、以色列、卢森堡、拉脱维亚、马其顿、葡萄牙、罗马尼亚、塞尔维亚、斯洛文尼亚、斯洛伐克,西班牙的一些地区 Time Limit 有时间限制 LT, IT (18 months), Some ES regions 立陶宛、意大利(18个月) 西班牙的一些地区
MIS beneficiaires 最低收入体系的受益人 Country 国家 % of individuals aged at most 65 and in absolute poverty 对年龄65岁以上个人和绝对贫困的百分比 Bulgaria 保加利亚 11.7% Spain 西班牙 16.2% Italy (2018) 意大利 19.5% Latvia 拉脱维亚 21.8% Portugal 葡萄牙 36.8% United Kingdom 英国 48.6% Lithuania 立陶宛 53% Greece (2017) 希腊 69.8% Denmark 丹麦 85.6% Sweden 瑞典 93.4% Netherlands 荷兰 96.7% Estonia 爱沙尼亚 99.9% Austria 奥地利 103% Germany 德国 174.6% Ireland 爱尔兰 188.2% France 法国 244.6% Finland 芬兰 342.1%
% of Social Spending 占社会支出的百分比 Spending for MIS in EU 欧盟各国对最低收入体系的支出 Country 国家 % of GDP 占GDP百分比 % of Social Spending 占社会支出的百分比 Latvia 拉脱维亚 0.03% 0.22% Bulgaria 保加利亚 0.06% 0.35% Estonia 爱沙尼亚 0.08% 0.47% Italy (2018) 意大利 0.11% Spain 西班牙 0.13% 0.51% Croatia 克罗地亚 0.15% 0.70% Czech Republic 捷克共和国 0.16% 0.83% Portugal 葡萄牙 0.62% Lithuania 立陶宛 0.21% 1.33% Austria 奥地利 0.24% 0.79% United Kingdom 英国 0.84% Sweden 瑞典 0.25% 0.86% Belgium 比利时 0.30% 0.99% Luxembourg 卢森堡 0.32% 1.44% Finland 芬兰 1.12% Greece (2017) 希腊 0.43% 1.63% France 法国 1.37% Netherlands 荷兰 0.73% 2.44% Denmark 丹麦 2.66% Ireland 爱尔兰 1.05% 6.42% Germany 德国 1.39% 4.75%
Active Inclusion Regimes Type of programs MIS: active inclusion 最低收入体系:积极包容政策 Active Inclusion Regimes 积极包容制度 Type of programs 项目类型 Workfare 工作福利 Stringent active job-search requirements 对积极寻找工作的严格要求 Broad definition of a ‘suitable’ job offer 对“合适”工作机会的宽泛定义 Sanctions 处罚 Time limits 时限 «Inclusion» limited to ALMP 积极劳动力市场政策的“包容性” Enabling Activation 促进积极就业、 提高就业能力 Limited conditionality 限制性条件 Job-search assistance programmes (counselling, job-search support and training) 协助寻找工作的项目(咨询、支持和培训) Training courses 培训课程 Privileged access to non-working related social services (childcare, etc.) 优先获得非工作性质的社会服务(儿童照料等)
Limited Conditionality MIS: conditionality 最低收入体系:限制条件 Very Strict 非常严格 Limited Conditionality 有限制条件 No Conditionality 无条件 Germany, Italy, Lithuania, Latvia, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, United Kingdom 德国、意大 利、立陶宛、 拉脱维亚、 卢森堡、荷 兰、葡萄牙、 英国 Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Spain, Finland, France, Sweden 奥地利、比 利时、保加 利亚、捷克、 丹麦、希腊、 爱尔兰、西 班牙、芬兰、 法国、瑞典
Role of the regional level MIS: the territorial dimension 最低收入体系:地域维度 Model 模式 Role of the regional level 地区层面政府的角色 Countries 国家 Centralised 中央化 Implementation 执行 Active Inclusion Policies 积极包容政策 Ireland – UK- France – Belgium – Portugal 爱尔兰-英国-法国-比利时-葡萄牙 Integrated / Decentralised 综合的/地方化 Regulatory (except basic framework law and minima) 监管(除了基本法律框架) Sweden – Denmark – Finland -Germany – Austria- Netherlands 瑞典-丹麦-芬兰-德国-奥地利-荷兰 Uncoordinated Decentralization 非协调性的地方化 Financing 资金来源 Legislative 立法 Austria (until 2012) 奥地利(到2012年) Spain Italy (in transformation) 西班牙、意大利(转型中)
Pension scheme and poverty protection 养老体系和贫困保护 Different possible components of a pension system redistribute incomes and protect against poverty (incidence or intensity). These components might interact. 养老体系的不同内容能够对收入进行再分配,并对反贫困起到支持和保护作用(发生率或强度)。这些内容相互联动。 Social assistance pensions (SA): means tested, independent on contribution records 社会救助型养老金(SA):经过家计调查,与缴费记录无关。 Means tested (minimum) pensions (MT): supplements to low value pensions, sometimes not contributory, or paid according to contribution records or to years of residence 经过家计调查的(最低)养老金(MT):对低价值养老金起到补充作用,有时并不是缴费型的,或不根据缴费记录或者居住年限进行支付。 Flat rate (basic) pensions (FR): non means tested, related to contribution records or to years of residence 统一费率的(基本)养老金(FR):不需要家计调查,与缴费记录或居住年限有关。 Contributory pensions: non means tested, related to contribution records, benefit depends on the pension formula, e.g, earnings related or NDC 缴费型养老金:不需要家计调查,与缴费记录有关,金额根据养老保险公式计算,如收入或名义账户制。 What is the effect on income redistribution of the various schemes? 不同制度对收入再分配的效果如何?
Southern Northern Anglo-Saxon AT MT/SA GR MT/FR DK IE MT/SA/FR BE IT Anti-poverty schemes in EU15 pension systems 欧盟15国养老体系的反贫困制度 Continental 欧洲大陆国家 Southern 欧洲南部国家 Northern 欧洲北部国家 Anglo-Saxon 安格鲁-撒克逊国家 AT MT/SA GR MT/FR DK IE MT/SA/FR BE IT FI MT UK FR PT SE DE ES LU NL SA/FR
Incidence of relative poverty in EU15: all vs elderly 欧盟15国相对贫困发生率:所有人对比老年人
Intensity of relative poverty in EU15: all vs elderly 欧盟15国相对贫困强度:所有人对比老年人
Incidence of relative poverty in EU15: all vs young 欧盟15国相对贫困发生率:所有人对比年轻人
Intensity of relative poverty in EU15: all vs young 欧盟15国相对贫困强度:所有人对比年轻人