十六世紀的歐洲局勢 從英格蘭宗教改革談起 從我的研究/學術關懷: 英格蘭宗教改革談起. 台北大學歷史系李若庸教授 2008.3.25

Henry VIII (r.1509-1547) 亨利八世的第一任妻子凱撒琳是西班牙公主，也是亨利七世為其王儲亞瑟王子(Prince Arthur)所擇定的太子妃。凱撒琳在三歲時便與當時的威爾斯親王訂下婚約，一五○一年凱撒琳十五歲時至英格蘭與亞瑟完婚。不過婚後不到五個月，年僅十五歲的亞瑟就因病(Sweating Sickness)去世。 一五○九年四月，亨利七世去世，凱撒琳於同年六月與亨利舉行婚禮，並於亨利加冕之時同時被冊封為英格蘭王后。接下來的九年間凱撒琳曾多次懷孕，但只有一女存活(即後來的瑪麗一世)。一五二○年代，年逾三十五歲的凱撒琳逐漸對亨利失去吸引力。尤有甚者，西班牙與英格蘭的關係也在此時陷入低潮。為了替未來可能承襲王位的唯一繼承人瑪麗公主建立一條穩固的統治之路，亨利決定替她尋覓一個有力的夫婿。此時，與瑪麗有表親關係(Catherine與Joanna the Mad of Castile為姊妹)的查理(查理五世)便成為亨利心目中的理想人選。查理在一五一六年繼承西班牙王位，並且在一五一九年被選為神聖羅馬帝國皇帝，是當時歐陸最具影響力的君王。查理轄下的尼德蘭一直是英格蘭重要的商業夥伴。並且，忙碌的查理在歐陸有許多事務要處理，不可能長居英格蘭，後者可保有實質上的自主。最後，瑪麗如果能與查理生下子嗣，則這位繼承人可能成為基督教世界的實際統治者。這項婚姻協定卻在一五二五年破局。Charles V娶了Isabella of Portugal 。

Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) 離婚事件（the King’s Great Matter)：自1527年前後開始，Henry開始關切他與Catherine婚姻的合法性。因為Catherine嚴格說是其寡嫂，而在聖經的Leviticus 20:21（利未記）中寫道：娶了兄弟的寡婦的人將沒有孩子。然而這段婚姻一開始並非如此。（所以令人懷疑Henry所持的理由是否真實）當時Henry VIII 18歲，Catherine 則24歲；兩人在取得教皇的特赦令(dispensation) 後成婚。最初的一段日子相當地快樂融洽。然而兩人生下的孩子(從Henry 的角度來看)卻像是被詛咒了一般，不是出生就是在嬰兒期間便死亡。唯一長大的公主便是Princess Mary。→ Henry開始懷疑「教皇是否並無能力赦免其罪?」，認為自己娶了兄嫂是子嗣不豐的主因。(有愛國心的英國人多以此為Henry的行為辯護) → 王位繼承問題: Tudor並非建立在一個長久且穩固的基礎上。 (i) 私生子Henry Fitzroy, duke of Richmond: Henry曾與Catherine的女侍 Elizabeth Blount有染，並生下一子Henry Fitzroy。此子為無繼承權的私生子，但在無其他男嗣的狀況下，很可能為有心人士利用，成為動盪的源頭。 (ii) 女主的經驗極少且不成功: 在此之前，英格蘭史上只有一個女王，即Henry I之女Matilda。Henry I是位強勢的國王，並且在其生前便為Matilda建立種種基礎(如要貴族多次宣誓效忠)，最後的結果卻是被Stephen取代，並且進入一段相當長的內亂。 (iii) 聯姻考量的隱憂: 女主即位，則其選擇的婚姻對象結盟的意味濃厚。(畢竟是一個以男性為中心的社會) 如果與外國聯姻，則必會「將外國影響力引入英國」

Arthur Tudor (1486-1502) Anne Boleyn (1501/07-1536) Anne Boleyn的出現: 大約在1525-1527年間，Henry與宮中的女士Anne Boleyn產生戀情。Anne的父親Sir Thomas Boleyn是一名外交官，Anne因此有一段時間在法國度過。對於Henry 而言，已經四十歲的Catherine已失去吸引力，正當三十多歲的他為一名雙十年華的活潑女性而深深吸引(其情書上的記載)。(只能說Henry VIII只是凡人。 歐陸的局勢→法、西競爭→離婚(婚姻無效)「特赦令」的取得困難 Henry曾想利用「正常」的手段(即取得教皇Clement VII的赦免令，說明當初的決定是一項錯誤，故婚姻無效，Henry仍然未婚) 一五二六年，克里蒙(Pope Clement VII, r.1478-1534)選擇與法王法蘭西斯一世(r.1494-1547)結盟，於是引來1527年查理五世以軍隊佔領羅馬，教皇淪入其控制。斯卡瑞斯布里克(J. J. Scarisbrick)指出亨利當時所處的微妙狀況：在教皇完全被查理控制的情況下，亨利固然不可能取得特赦令，教廷如果與查理交好，亨利亦不可能達成目的。只有在查理與教廷為敵(最好是處在戰爭狀態中)，英王才有機會。由此可見此事的難度極高。 (要教廷自承錯誤其難度可想而知)。當時Rome正受Spain之圍，因此Wolsey曾嘗試與法國聯盟的方式(1528-1529)，以軍事行動解救教皇，並藉此解決國王的婚姻問題。→失敗，Wolsey失勢。

Francis I (r.1515-1547) Charles V (r.1516-1556)

建立英格蘭教會的新架構(1534) Act of Supremacy (1534) (至高權法案): 「國王是英格蘭教會在世間最高的領袖(supreme head)」，凡繼有此位者，也繼承了相關的頭銜(titles)、榮譽(honors)、司法權(jurisdiction)與權力(powers)。同時也確認國王「改革教會中錯誤與異端」的權力。 Act of Succession (1534): 繼承權在Henry與Anne Boleyn生下的孩子。

英格蘭宗教改革研究的主要問題 亨利八世政府如何在有限的資源下(沒有 常備軍, 以及龐大的官僚體系), 完成所謂的官方宗教改革(official reformation)?

以Reginald Pole的外交出使為例 從十六世紀的歐洲局勢解釋 以Reginald Pole的外交出使為例

Reginald Pole (1500-1558) 雷金納德．波爾(Reginald Pole)出生於一五○○年，是理查．波爾爵士(Sir Richard Pole，1458/9-1504))的第三個­兒子。波爾家族與都鐸王室淵源深厚；波爾家出身北威爾斯，與同樣出身威爾斯的亨利．都鐸(後來的亨利七世，r.1485-1509)互動密切。[1] 波爾的母親「索爾斯堡女伯爵．瑪格麗特」(Margaret，Countess of Salisbury)具有約克王室血統；她是愛德華四世(Edward IV，r.1461-1483)次弟克拉倫斯公爵(George，Duke of Clarence)的女兒。波爾家族因此是都鐸時代少數擁有王室血源的貴族世家。 波爾一生中最富戲劇性，也最為關鍵的事件，是他與亨利八世國王之間的君臣恩怨。波爾家族雖然出身尊貴，卻不為亨利八世所喜。自一五一八年開始，該家族便與亨利國王陷入微妙的緊張關係：具有王室血統的波爾家族，與當時英格蘭最具勢力的白金漢公爵(Edward Stafford，duke of Buckingham)締結姻親關係，這讓亨利八世備感威脅。[2] 雖然如此，亨利八世卻對波爾恩遇有加。波爾在牛津大學就讀時，亨利八世便曾連續兩年賜予他十二英鎊的津貼；待波爾前往帕度亞(Padua)繼續學業，亨利又撥付他一百英鎊的生活資助，還去信威尼斯政府，要求特別關照。事實上，波爾在義大利的生活費用，也多仰賴亨利給予的教職收入。波爾因為亨利八世的特別照護，地位尊崇，一帆風順。亨利八世對於波爾寄望很深，而波爾本人亦深感君恩。 波爾與亨利八世之間原本「和諧」的君臣關係，在亨利八世推動宗教改革後逐漸產生變化。亨利八世在一五三○年代為了與王后凱撒琳離異，採取日益激烈的政治手段，最終在一五三四年透過國會立法的方式，自立英格蘭國教會，授與亨利「國王至高權」(royal supremacy)的地位。「國王至高權」是亨利朝宗教改革最為激進且關鍵的發展；此舉宣告英格蘭教會自此脫離羅馬教廷的管轄。亨利此舉茲事體大，而國王為了鞏固政權，強化統治基礎，因此要求知識菁英就「國王至高權」問題表態支持。支持國王至高權，便是支持國王脫離羅馬天主教會，對於英格蘭的知識菁英而言，這實在是「忠君」與「虔信」之間的困難抉擇。 著名的意見領袖摩爾爵士(Sir Thomas More)與費雪主教(John Fisher)，選擇以身殉道來成全信念。 [1] 據聞，理查爵士一直接受亨利七世的資助，兩人並且是遠親關係。 [2] 白金漢公爵的兒子亨利與波爾的姊姊Ursula締結婚約。而波爾的長兄亨利(Henry Pole)也因為與Neville家族聯姻，而與Buckingham結為姻親。此外，亨利‧波爾據聞與白金漢公爵頗為投契，兩人常一起「博羿」。這兩個均具有王室血統的家族聯姻，讓亨利八世感受威脅。Woolfson, Padua and the Tudors, pp.119-120. Dowling, Humanism in the Age of Henry VIII, p.155.

John Fisher Thomas More (c.1469- 22 June 1535) (1478-1535) John Cardinal Fisher (c.1469 – 22 June 1535), from 1535 Saint John Fisher, was an English Catholic bishop, cardinal and martyr. He shares his feast day with Saint Thomas More on June 22 in the Roman Catholic calendar of saints and 6 July on the Anglican calendar of saints. Fisher and More were executed by King Henry VIII during the English Reformation for refusing to accept him as Head of the Church of England. He is the only member of the College of Cardinals to have suffered martyrdom. Sir Thomas More (7 February 1478 – 6 July 1535), from 1935 Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, author, and statesman who in his lifetime gained a reputation as a leading humanist scholar, and occupied many public offices, including Lord Chancellor (1529–1532), in which he had a number of people burned at the stake for heresy. More coined the word "utopia", a name he gave to an ideal, imaginary island nation whose political system he described in the eponymous book published in 1516. He was beheaded in 1535 when he refused to sign the Act of Supremacy that declared Henry VIII Supreme Head of the Church in England.

1536年英格蘭北部的 聖寵朝聖行(Pilgrimage of Grace)叛亂 Pole的出使背景 1536年英格蘭北部的 聖寵朝聖行(Pilgrimage of Grace)叛亂

聖寵朝聖行路線圖 一五三六年，英格蘭北部發生叛變，觸發叛變的原因是中央派員前來解散小型修院。[1]克倫威爾（Thomas Cromwell, 1485~1540）派遣里（Sir Thomas Legh, d.1545）與萊登（Richard Layton, c.1498~1544）兩人至林肯郡（Lincolnshire）調查修院，在當地引起很大的反彈。十月一日，林肯郡的勞思（Louth）首先出現暴動，中央的專員遭受攻擊；民眾佔領了郡治所在的林肯（Lincoln），要求停止解散修院，懲處主事的克倫威爾，並且解除「異端」主教（在此指不信奉羅馬天主教者）的職務。林肯郡的騷動雖在十月十九日瓦解，但於此同時，更為嚴重的動亂開始在林肯郡北邊的約克郡（Yorkshire）爆發。[2]十月初曾南下參與林肯郡行動的約克郡士紳羅伯．艾斯克（Robert Aske, 1500~1537），將運動帶往北方。[3]十月十三日，他與當地士紳思達波頓（William Stapulton）會面，席間提到「朝聖者」（pilgrims）一詞。[4]「朝聖」的概念於是成為行動的主軸。艾斯克將接下來的行動定位為一次「尋求『聖寵』（grace）的『朝聖行』（pilgrimage）」，「聖寵朝聖行」（the Pilgrimage of Grace）於是誕生。[5] 十五日，艾斯克開始在東約克郡（Kexby Moor, East Riding）宣讀林肯郡的請願條文號召群眾，「朝聖者」快速集結。十六日，艾斯克率領「朝聖者」進入郡治約克（York），並且在約克大教堂（York minister）的門板貼上告示，「下令」恢復被解散的修院。二十四日，群眾已聚集有三萬之眾，包括約克大主教愛德華．李（Edward Lee, 1481/2~1544）與達西男爵（Thomas Darcy, Baron Darcy of Templehurst, 1467~1537）等地方顯貴，均加入了「朝聖」的行列。十八日，「朝聖者」往南向「龐蒂弗拉克特」（Pontefract）推進，[6]十九日佔領「龐蒂弗拉克特堡」（Pontefract Castle），要求當地的士紳與教士們加入朝聖的行動。至此，超過五十位以上的約克郡士紳參與了「朝聖行」，其中且包括一位貴族與九名爵士。 奉命撫局的是負責處理林肯郡動亂的諾弗克公爵（Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, 1473~1554）。他於十月十七日進駐林肯郡時聽聞約克郡的騷動，隨即派員前進約克，希望「給予叛民致命的一擊」。但「朝聖者」的勢力超乎諾弗克的預期，於是他建議亨利國王，一方面在林肯郡南邊設一條防線，阻止「朝聖者」往南推進；一方面亦派人前往勸說，希望「朝聖者」自動解散。亨利同意了諾弗克的提議。雙方於是在二十七日展開第一次的談判。諾弗克公爵替亨利國王承諾，日後將召開國會，具體討論「朝聖者」的請求，國王並將大赦此次的參與者，不予懲治。[7]十一月二日，「朝聖者」代表艾列克（Ralph Ellerker）與包斯（Robert Bowes）在諾弗克公爵的帶領下，前往溫莎（Windsor）謁見亨利國王（直接向國王陳情是「朝聖者」在停火協定中提出的要求）。亨利八世親自接見，艾列克兩人深感驚訝。亨利深知這是展現王者寬宏的好機會：他不僅未提到任何懲處要求，並且表現他對和平與民眾福祉的關切。亨利在諾弗克公爵的「勸說」下，同意接受請願書，審慎思考答覆。 三天後，亨利做出回覆，表示「朝聖者」是因「錯誤的訊息」集結，他願意「有條件」給予赦免。不過此時約克郡出現進一步動亂，又有三、四千名的群眾集結騷動，亨利政府於是在十四日提議第二次談判。[8]十五日，「朝聖者」擄獲由克倫威爾派遣的補給船，並得知後者要求屋爾爵士（Sir Ralph Eure）從北面攻擊，動亂於是進一步擴大。二十一日，八百名「朝聖者」代表在約克集會三天，提出幾項主張：國王「全面赦免」（general pardon）此次「反叛之罪」、召開國會、再接受請願書，諾弗克公爵代亨利應允。十二月二日，「朝聖者」在「龐蒂弗拉克特」擬定第二份陳情書，由公爵轉交國王。八日，亨利的回覆到達，「朝聖者」的請願獲得首肯，群眾散去；士紳們在諾弗克公爵面前表達順服，當場撕下「朝聖者」的標記，結束抗爭。但群眾散去後，局勢未如預期發展，亨利政府並未積極實踐其承諾。部分不滿群眾於是繼續集結，發動零星的攻擊。不過都鐸中央的主要威脅已解，最後留下來二百多人被強行鎮壓處決（包括領銜的達西與艾斯克兩人），結束了英格蘭史上所稱「聖寵朝聖行」的抗爭行動。[9]

The Pilgrimage of Grace (1536/37) The King's promises were not kept, and in January 1537 a new rising took place in Cumberland and Westmoreland (which Aske attempted to prevent) under Sir Francis Bigod, of Settrington in the East Riding of Yorkshire. Upon this the king arrested Aske and several of the other leaders, such as Lords Darcy, Constable, and Bigod, who were all convicted of treason and executed. Aske was hung in chains from the walls of York Castle as a warning to other would-be rebels. Sir Robert Constable, the abbots of Barlings, Sawley, Fountains and Jervaulx Abbeys, and the prior of Bridlington were executed in July 1537. In all, 216 were put to death; lords and knights, half a dozen abbots, 38 monks, and 16 parish priests. The loss of the leaders enabled the Duke of Norfolk to quell the rising and martial law was imposed upon the rebellious regions, ending the rebellion.

教廷方面對於 「聖寵朝聖行」的判斷

Paul III (1534-49, Alessandro Farnese) James V of Scotland (r.1513-1542) James renewed the Auld Alliance with France, and on 1 January 1537, he married Madeleine de Valois, the daughter of Francis I of France. Following her death a few months later, he proceeded to marry, on 12 June 1538, Mary of Guise, the daughter of Claude, Duke of Guise and the widow of Louis of Orleans, Duke of Longueville. Mary already had two children from her first marriage, and the union produced two legitimate sons, James Stewart, Duke of Rothesay (b. 22 May 1540), and Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany (b. 1541). However, both died in infancy in April 1541, the second just eight days after his baptism. In 1542, their only child to survive to adulthood, Mary, later Queen of Scots, was born. Pope Paul III (February 29, 1468 – November 10, 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1534 to his death in 1549. He also called the Council of Trent in 1545. His first appointment to the cardinalate on December 18, 1534, was to his grandsons Alessandro Farnese and Ascanio Sforza, aged fourteen and sixteen years respectively; yet subsequent appointments included Gasparo Contarini, Sadoleto, Reginald Pole, and Giovanni Pietro Carafa, subsequently Pope Paul IV. Paul III was in earnest in the matter of improving the ecclesiastical situation, and on June 2, 1536, he issued a papal bull convoking a general council to sit at Mantua in 1537. But at the very start the German Protestant estates declined to send any delegates to a council in Italy, while the duke of Mantua himself set down such large requirements that Paul III first deferred for a year and then discarded the whole project.

No.88. Bishop of Faenza to Mons. Ambrogio (Jan. 14) Frenchman writes from England that the King has in prison some of the chiefs of the insurrection, but that he was obliged to be lenient, because even if the people are quiet now, they can easily rise again if the King will not grant what they consider honest and Christian. I have again done with the king of Scotland what you wrote about. He is a prince of the best intentions and as obedient to the Pope as can be desired. 此信顯示教廷對於情勢的掌握很有限. lenient: 寬大, 仁慈. King of Scotland: James V, who has just married the French Princess, Madelaine of Valois.

Cardinal Pole 出發

No.367. Cardinal Pole (7 Feb.) 7 Feb. 1537. The Pope created Cardinal Pole legate de latere and destined him to arrange the affairs of England.

One thing he must not omit One thing he must not omit. It may be that the King has sought, by asking for the people’s petitions, and pretending to approve them, and promising to accept them, to escape their fury, with the intention of not observing anything when he is out of danger, and of getting rid of the authors of the sedition upon one pretext or another. To provide against this, there should be someone to exhort the people, in the Pope’s name, to stand firm, and a provision of money would be necessary… there should be a credit with the Fuccari (=the Fuggers, banker) and Belzeri (=the banker), and the greater the better, to be employed when Pole sees necessary. Pole帶了資金去資助「叛亂」.

Pole’s Tour in France Valenciennes (Cambray) Cambrai (Cambray) Abbeville (Picardy) Lyons (Rhone- Alpes) Paris (Ils-de-France) Troye (Champagne-Ardenne) Hede (Bretagne) On 22 December 1536 Pole was made a cardinal and shortly thereafter, on 7 February 1537, appointed legate with instructions dated 14 February covering peace, the Turks, and the general council. His real assignment was to assist the Pilgrimage of Grace. He travelled slowly, constantly worried about money, leaving Rome on 18 February and reaching Lyons only on 24 March. The encouragement of a bull of 31 March 1537, granting a crusading indulgence to anyone who undertook to overthrow Henry by force, did not make him move much faster. When Pole finally reached Paris on 10 April, François I expelled him because of treaty obligations to Henry. Pole then headed for Cambrai, where he spent at least a month and had to dodge several assassination attempts mounted by John Hutton, the English ambassador to Mary of Hungary, as well as avoid marauding soldiers. Pole had to ask several times for permission to enter imperial territory, but was finally licensed to go to Liège. Pole made his formal entry to Liège at the end of May or beginning of June, but this affair—like his whole stay—was low-key. On 30 June the pope once more demanded that Pole return and this time he agreed, though he did not leave until 22 August. Pole was received in consistory on 18 October.

Low Countries and Pole’s Tour

法國方面的外交行動

No.625. Francis I. (10 March) Instructions for the Bailly of Troyes, respecting what he is to declare to the king of England. After presenting the letters of credence, he is to say that Francis, being on the frontier of Picardy, determined to send the Bailly to visit Henry, who is the best brother and friend he has in the world, and inform him of certain advertisements which Francis has received from his ambassador at Rome. [法國國王Francis I給予即將前往英格蘭的使節的指示。有幾個值得注意: 對於Pole的情況非常清楚: (a) 他的出使目的；(b)他在調度資金 法國正與英格蘭在談法王儲與瑪麗公主的聯姻問題：和下面Charles V的指示比較，可知西班牙方面也在考慮此聯姻的問題。而此事正是Pole在出使時進行。或許是亨利故意利用此來減緩北方以及來自教廷的壓力。 相對之下，教廷與西班牙、法國，在「情報」的交通上，都相對表面。可見教廷處於當時歐洲強權外交圈的「外圍」，與中古時期很不一樣。它連Pole能不能到目的地...完全沒有情報。（外交是否可以反映一個時代的實力問題?） Bailey of Troyes:Troyes的防衛官

The Pope in Consistory has created cardinal Pole, Englishman, to be legate not only in England but in all places which he shall pass through on his way thither, and has given him for colleague John Matthew bishop of Verona; intending, if Henry will not return amicably to his obedience to the Roman Church and the Aposlotic See, to deliver to the Cardinal through the merchants a good sum of money, in order to give succour to the people (Pilgrimage of Grace) against him, and so constrain him (=Henry VIII) to return to obedience by force. If Francis can do anything, Henry is to let him know. ...As to the marriage between the duke of Orleans and princess Mary, the Bailly is to say what has been commanded him. Moussi, 10 March 1536. Consistory: 樞機主教會議. Succor: 救助, 濟助. Duke of Orleans: Francis I 之第三子.

皇帝方面的策略

No.696. Charles V. (21 March) Instructions to Don Diego de Mendoça and the Senõr de Arbes sent to England. To proceed to England with all speed, and first of all confer with Dr. Eustace Chapuys, the ambassador there, and learn his latest news of the king of England’s will as to the marriage of the Infant Don Luis of Portugal with the Princess of England, as to the establishment of amity, and also the state of affairs in England with the insurrections and confederacies of the people, and the state of matters between England and France. Don Diego de Mendoca: Hurtado de Mendoza, Don Diego, special ambassador to England (1537). Senor de Arbes: Sieur de Herbais (Sieur de Horton) Louis (Lewis), Infante of Portugal, brother of the King (Don Luis). Confer: 協商. Confederacies: 非法結社. [談與英格蘭公主瑪麗聯姻之事：可看幾件事情： （a）西班牙國王如何指示他的外交官； （b）英格蘭在當時歐洲的地位：各方角力爭取； （c）外交談判與運作的過程。→其中第二項尤其可以用來解釋Pole在歐陸受到此番待遇的原因。教廷沒有實力（自顧不暇），在緊繃的歐陸競爭中，唯有未被牽涉其中的英格蘭具有「被拉攏」的價值。事實上，亨利八世亦相當清楚此點。他選擇宗教改革的時機，或許也有此項考量。（此點可以用來解釋外在壓力為何始終未在亨利八世朝造成實質的威脅；一直要到依莉莎白時代。）以前曾經有人談過亨利八世採取的是「均勢政策」（balance of power），此點或許可以好好想想。

Infante Luis, Duke of Beja (1506-1555) Mary I (1516-1558) The Infante Luís, 5th Duke of Beja (pron. IPA: [lu'iʃ]; English: Louis or Lewis) (Abrantes, March 3, 1506 — , in Lisbon, November 27, 1555) was the second son of King Manuel I of Portugal and his second wife Maria of Aragon, princess of Spain (Catholic Kings' third daughter), and therefore a Portuguese infante. Luís succeeded his father as the 5th Duke of Beja and was also made 9th Constable of the Kingdom (Portuguese: Condestável do Reino) and Prior of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, with its Portuguese headquarters in the town of Crato. He did not marry but had a natural son of Yolande (Violante) Gomes, a Pelicana (the she-pellican), a Jewess, who is said to have died a Nun in , Santarém, on 16 July 1568, daughter of Pedro Gomes, from Évora. Some say they eventually married perhaps at Évora, thus legitimating their issue for every purpose[1]). Their son António, Prior of Crato, would be one of the claimants to the throne after the disaster of Alcácer Quibir and subsequent death of King Sebastian of Portugal and the dynastic crisis that followed, and, according to some historians, the 18th King of Portugal during the year of 1580.

If the King is sincere in the matter (=the match), they shall do their best to forward it…They are not to break off the practice for any difficulties the king of England may raise, unless they perceive him disinclined to the match, and that further negotiation would be against the honour of the king of Portugal, Infant, and Princess, and the king of England only wishes to prolong it in order to strengthen himself in another quarter. But first, they must write all that occurs…they must do their best to discover the ultimate desire of the king of England. If the king of England wishes to know the fortune of the Infant, and how the Princess will be treated, they must say that no doubt the king of Portugal, according to his desire for the match, will do all to the king of England’s satisfaction, using good words to dissuade him from demanding great conditions from the Infant, such as that to a king of his power and wealth it is sufficient to have a good and obedient son. This must be done directly.

If the King or his councillors say that the king of France offers great conditions with his son, the duke of Orleans, they can reply that they may be, but that all would rest on the king of France and his successor, and that the inequality of ages should be considered; whereas the Infant would be entirely in the King’s power, and is a person of mature age, sensible, virtuous, and well-conditioned, and the more liberally the King conducts this negotiation, the more the Infant will be bound to him. Besides, there is the natural enmity between England and France on the one hand, and the ancient amity with Portugal on the other. The Emperor has so trusted in the King’s honour that he made no reply to his ambassador’s suggestion that they should seek a match for the Infant elsewhere. Charles V 方面非常清楚對手的行動, 但教廷方面一無所知. Princess Mary (b.1516, 21歲), Infante Luis (b.1506, 31歲), Charles, duke of Orlean (b.1522, 15歲)

The King may trust the Emperor’s sincerity, and the match would be not only for the good of the Infant and Princess, but also the best possible for the King. And although the king of Portugal and the Infant are, like predecessors, princes of good faith, the Emperor will willingly be bound with them in any conditions to be observed by the Infant. At the same time the Emperor, king of Portugal, and Infant are willing to make a league with the king of England for defence of their States (in which the king of the Romans will also join).

As the king of England has shown himself little constant in this and other negociations with the ambassador, he may have gone further and allied himself with the king of France, especially as regards the said marriage, or he may intend to treat with someone else, either in England or elsewhere. If so, they shall work to undo such other matches and consult with the Princess either to break them off or to gain time…If the King is determined to constrain her to some other match they must see if it is possible to carry her off from England in the way formerly talked of between her and the ambassador, or some other manner although the methods which have been imagined have always appeared very difficult and dangerous, and would, whether successful or not, be followed by an open declaration of war with us, of which the king of France would not fail to avail himself. In any case, a convenient time must be waited for. 此段談到Mary的狀況. 由此可知, Charles V並非不在意Mary的狀況，但無奈情況不允許他給予太多的實質協助。從Charles對Mary的態度可知他本人內心較為清楚的想法。 avail: 有助益.

This must be maturely considered, that no declaration be made against the king of England without great appearance of its being possible to conclude the business by force, because popular movements seldom last long, especially those of England, and the Emperor is so occupied with the important affairs of Christendom against the king of France and the Turk and other infidels that he could not give the assistance which would perhaps be necessary. As to expecting aid from the Pope by the going of cardinal Pole, it is to be feared that the Pope may excuse himself, or defer on account of the Turk’s coming. Moreover, the Cardinal may arrive too late, and there is little appearance that he is provided with money and men. Nothing can be founded on this till it is known that the Cardinal has arrived and is suitably provided, and that, through him or otherwise, the insurgents have either overcome the King or are determined to resist him to the last. Charles V對於P of G的評估。顯然比教廷要精確許多.

Accordingly the Emperor wrote to the Queen Regent of Flanders that the Pope has asked him to give the Cardinal a safe conduct through Flanders and assist his enterprise, but that she must look well what opportunity there is…and how the king of England and his subjects stand, and accordingly either excuse herself as regards the Cardinal’s charge or assist him. They and the ambassador…shall keep the Queen Regent informed of what passes in England. In the execution of their charge, they must not bind the Emperor to anything against the Holy See which might make the Pope suspicious, nor do anything against the ancient alliance between the Emperors and Scotland, for though the present king (=James V of Scotland) has married in France, still he and his kingdom may observe that this confederacy (=Pilgrimage of Grace) is not less important to them than the Emperor… Emperor也重視與教廷的關係。所以並不希望讓教皇認為/懷疑他的立場。這不僅說明國際局勢的詭譎，也說明為何「教廷誤判局勢」，它所接收到的是相當正面的訊息。

Mary of Austria Louis II of Hungary (1516-1526) (1505-1558) In August 1526, Sultan Suleiman I, also known as Suleiman the Lawgiver and Suleiman the Magnificent, had defeated the forces of King Louis II of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács. As a result, the Ottomans gained control of southern Hungary, while the Archduke of Austria, Ferdinand I of Habsburg, brother of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, claimed the vacant Hungarian throne in right of his wife, Anna Jagellonica, sister of the childless Louis II. Ferdinand, however, won recognition only in western Hungary; a noble called John Zápolya, from a power-base in Transylvania, north-eastern Hungary, challenged him for the crown and was recognised as king by Suleiman in return for accepting vassal status within the Ottoman Empire. Following the Diet of Pozsony on 26 October[7], Ferdinand was declared King of Hungary due to his marriage to Louis' sister and his own sister being the widow of Louis. Ferdinand set out to enforce his claim on Hungary and captured Buda[8] . These gains were short-lived and by 1529, an Ottoman counter-attack swiftly negated all of the gains by Ferdinand in his campaigns in 1527 and 1528.

The Dominion of the Habsburgs (1547)

Suleiman I, the Magnificent (r.1520-1566) Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha (c.1478-1546) In 1534 Barbarossa set sail from Istanbul with 80 galleys and in April he recaptured Coron, Patras and Lepanto from the Spaniards. In July 1534 he crossed the Strait of Messina and raided the Calabrian coasts, capturing a substantial number of ships around Reggio Calabria as well as the Castle of San Lucido. He later destroyed the port of Cetraro and the ships harbored there. Still in July 1534 he appeared in Campania and sacked the islands of Capri and Procida, before bombarding the ports in the Gulf of Naples. He then appeared in Lazio, shelled Gaeta and in August landed at Villa Santa Lucia, , Sperlonga, Fondi, Terracina and Ostia on the River Tiber, causing the church bells in Rome to ring the alarm. He then sailed south, appearing at Ponza, Sicily and Sardinia, before capturing Tunis in August 1534 and sending the Hafsid Sultan fleeing. He also captured the strategic port of La Goulette. Mulei Hassan asked Emperor Charles V for assistance to recover his kingdom, and a Spanish-Italian force of 300 galleys and 24,000 soldiers recaptured Tunis as well as Bone and Mahdiya in 1535. Recognizing the futility of armed resistance, Barbarossa had abandoned Tunis well before the arrival of the invaders, sailing away into the Tyrrhenian Sea, where he bombarded ports, landed once again at Capri and reconstructed a fort (which still today carries his name) after largely destroying it during the siege of the island. He then sailed to Algiers, from where he raided the coastal towns of Spain, destroyed the ports of Majorca and Minorca, captured several Spanish and Genoese galleys and liberated their Muslim oar slaves. In September 1535 he repulsed another Spanish attack on Tlemcen. In 1536 Barbarossa was called back to Istanbul to take command of 200 ships in a naval attack on the Habsburg Kingdom of Naples. In July 1537 he landed at Otranto and captured the city, as well as the Fortress of Castro and the city of Ugento in Apulia. In August 1537, and Barbarossa led a huge Ottoman force which captured the Aegean and Ionian islands belonging to the Republic of Venice, namely Syros, Aegina, Ios, Paros, Tinos, Karpathos, Kasos, Kythira, and Naxos. In the same year Barbarossa raided Corfu and obliterated the agricultural cultivations of the island while enslaving nearly all the population of the countryside (roughly 20,000 Corfiots were later sold as slaves in Istanbul).[1] However, the Old Fortress of Corfu was well defended by a 4,000-strong Venetian garrison with 700 guns, and when several assaults failed to capture the fortifications, the Turks reluctantly re-embarked,[1] and once again raided Calabria. These losses caused Venice to ask Pope Paul III to organize a "Holy League" against the Ottomans. In February 1538, Pope Paul III succeeded in assembling a Holy League (comprising the Papacy, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, the Republic of Venice and the Maltese Knights) against the Ottomans, but Barbarossa defeated its combined fleet, commanded by Andrea Doria, at the Battle of Preveza in September 1538. This victory secured Turkish dominance over the Mediterranean for the next 33 years, until the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in both Southern Europe and Central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic and military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. In fact, the Ottoman Empire was by this time a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere, and entered into a military alliance with France, the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Austria.