The History and Development of Cybernetics

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1 The History and Development of Cybernetics
事理学的历史与发展 The History and Development of Cybernetics. Presented by The George Washington University in conjunction with the American Society for Cybernetics.

2 The History and Development of Cybernetics
事理学的历史与发展 The History and Development of Cybernetics. Presented by The George Washington University in conjunction with the American Society for Cybernetics. Presented by The George Washington University in Cooperation with The American Society for Cybernetics

3 History of Cybernetics
Many years ago . . . 很久以前… Many years ago

4 Relative Complication
The things a person had to understand to get through life were relatively uncomplicated. 一个人要从生活中理解的事情相对来说还不是很复杂。 The things a person had to understand to get through life were relatively uncomplicated

5 每一个物体或者过程，如果我们可称之为一个系统，都还相对简单。
Objects & Processes Every object or process, which we shall refer to as a system, was relatively simple. 每一个物体或者过程，如果我们可称之为一个系统，都还相对简单。 Every object or process, which we will refer to as a system, was relatively simple.

6 事实上，一直到最近的几百年前，对于某些人而言，他们一个人就有可能掌握人类现存知识体系中相当重要的一部分。
Knowledge Mastery In fact, up until the last few hundred years, it was possible for some people to master a significant portion of man's existing knowledge. 事实上，一直到最近的几百年前，对于某些人而言，他们一个人就有可能掌握人类现存知识体系中相当重要的一部分。 In fact, up until the last few hundred years, it was possible for some people to master a significant portion of man's existing body of knowledge. Leonardo DaVinci

7 Leonardo Da Vinci was a leader in the fields of painting . .
Da Vinci – Painting Leonardo Da Vinci was a leader in the fields of painting . . 达芬奇是绘画领域的领军人物…. Leonardo Da Vinci was a leader in the fields of painting . . .

8 Da Vinci, cont. – Sculpture
…但同时也是雕塑领域的… . . . sculpture . . .

9 . . . anatomy . . . …也是解剖学专家… . . . anatomy . . .
Da Vinci, cont. – Anatomy . . . anatomy . . . …也是解剖学专家… . . . anatomy . . .

10 Da Vinci, cont. – Architecture
…建筑学专家… . . . architecture . . .

11 Da Vinci, cont. – Weapons Engineering
. . . weapons engineering, and . . . …武器制造工程师…而且还是… . . . weapons engineering, and . . .

12 Da Vinci, cont. – Aeronautical Engineering
. . . aeronautical engineering. This is his sketch for a 16th century flying machine . . . …航空工程师。这是他画的16世纪的飞行器的草图… . . . aeronautical engineering. This is his sketch for a 16th century flying machine . . .

13 Da Vinci, cont. – Aeronautical Engineering, cont.
. . . and for a parachute in case the machine broke down. …如果飞行器出了问题，这是降落伞的草图。 . . . and for a parachute in case the machine broke down.

14 随着时间的推移，人类所关注的系统开始变得…
Systems Complexity Complexity 复杂性 As time passed, the systems that humans were concerned with became . . . 随着时间的推移，人类所关注的系统开始变得… As time passed, the systems that humans were concerned with became . . .

15 Systems Complexity, cont.
. . . more and more complicated. …越来越复杂。 . . . more and more complicated.

16 Systems Complexity, cont.
Transportation systems alone have become more complex . . . 只是交通系统就已经变得更复杂了… Transportation systems alone have become more complex . . .

17 Systems Complexity, cont.
. . . and more complex . . . …而且越来越复杂… . . . and more complex . . .

18 Systems Complexity, cont.
. . . and more complex . . . …越来越复杂… . . . and more complex . . .

19 Systems Complexity, cont.
. . . and more complex . . . …越来越复杂… . . . and more complex . . .

20 Systems Complexity, cont.
. . . as have energy systems. …能源系统也是如此。 . . . as have energy systems.

21 Some people have suggested that technology . . . 有些人建议技术…
Technology Advances Some people have suggested that technology . . . 有些人建议技术… Some people have suggested that technology . . .

22 Technology Advances, cont.
. . . is advancing so rapidly it . . . …发展得如此迅猛… . . . is advancing so rapidly it . . .

23 Technology Advances, cont.
. . . is outpacing our ability to control it. …已经超出了我们能够控制的能力了。 . . . is outpacing our ability to control it. Three Mile Island

24 Keeping up with Developments
Clearly, it is no longer possible for one person to keep up with developments in all fields, let alone be a leader in many of them, as Leonardo Da Vinci was. 很显然，像达芬奇那样一个人能够在许多领域发展并成为各个领域的领军人物已经不再可能了。 Clearly, it is no longer possible for one person to keep up with developments in all fields, let alone be a leader in many of them, as Leonardo Da Vinci was.

25 How to Live and Work in a Technically Advanced Society?
Specialization has become a necessity. How then, do we live and work effectively in a technically advanced society? 专业化成为了一种必须。那么，我们怎么样才能有效地生活和工作在一个技术高度发达的社会中呢？ Specialization has become a necessity. How then, do we live and work effectively in a technically advanced society?

26 Underlying Principles
Is there a way that you, the modern man or woman, can sort through the complexity, formulate a set of principles underlying all systems and thereby enhance your ability to regulate the world in which you live? 你，作为一个现代人，有可能在这些复杂性当中寻找出一系列适用于所有系统的原则，并由此而提高自己的能力来调节你所居住的这个世界吗？ Is there a way that you, the modern man or woman, can sort through the complexity, formulate a set of principles underlying all systems and thereby enhance your ability to regulate the world in which you live?

27 Cybernetics = Regulation of Systems
This question was of interest to a handful of people in the 1940s who were the pioneers in a field that has become known as Cybernetics, the science of the regulation of systems. 1940年的时候，有一批人对这个问题产生了兴趣，他们成了这个的领域的探索先锋，该领域后来被称为事理学，也就是如何调节系统的科学。 This question was of interest to a handful of people in the 1940s who were the pioneers in a field that has become known as Cybernetics, the science of the regulation of systems.

28 Cybernetics – an Interdisciplinary Science
Cybernetics is an interdisciplinary science that looks at any and all systems from molecules . . . 事理学是一门跨学科科学，研究的是任何一种系统，小到分子… Cybernetics is an interdisciplinary science that looks at any and all systems from molecules . . .

29 What Cybernetics Looks at
. . . to galaxies, with special attention to machines, animals and societies. …大到银河系，对机器、动物和社会也有特别的关注。 . . . to galaxies, with special attention to machines, animals and societies.

30 Derivation of Cybernetics
Cybernetics is derived from the Greek word for steersman or helmsman, who provides the control system for a boat or ship. Cybernetics这个词是从希腊语的舵手steersman or helmsman来的，舵手就是在船上控制船系统的人。 Cybernetics is derived from the Greek word for steersman or helmsman, who provides the control system for a boat or ship.

31 这个词在1948年由Norbert Wiener借用来定义了这门科学。Wiener生于1894，死于1964，是公认的事理学之父。
Norbet Weiner This word was coined in 1948 and defined as a science by Norbert Wiener, who was born in 1894 and died in He became known as the Father of Cybernetics. 这个词在1948年由Norbert Wiener借用来定义了这门科学。Wiener生于1894，死于1964，是公认的事理学之父。 This word was coined in 1948 and defined as a science by Norbert Wiener, who was born in 1894 and died in He became known as the Father of Cybernetics.

32 Wiener本人是应用数学家、生物学家和电子工程师。在二战期间，他研发了雷达控制的防空高炮。
Wiener – Radar Wiener was an applied mathematician, biologist, and electrical engineer. He worked during World War II on the radar-guided anti-aircraft gun. Wiener本人是应用数学家、生物学家和电子工程师。在二战期间，他研发了雷达控制的防空高炮。 Wiener was an applied mathematician, biologist, and electrical engineer. He worked during World War II on the radar-guided anti-aircraft gun.

33 他在高射炮上连上了一个特殊的雷达装置，会自动瞄准敌人的飞机。在炮弹发射后，雷达会快速确定飞机的变化位置并重新瞄准飞机，直至飞机被击落。
Weiner – Radar, cont. He connected a special radar to the gun so that it was aimed automatically at the enemy aircraft. After the gun was fired, the radar quickly determined the changing location of the plane and re-aimed the gun until the plane was shot down. 他在高射炮上连上了一个特殊的雷达装置，会自动瞄准敌人的飞机。在炮弹发射后，雷达会快速确定飞机的变化位置并重新瞄准飞机，直至飞机被击落。 He designed the connection of a special radar to the gun so that it was aimed automatically at the enemy aircraft. After the gun was fired, the radar quickly determined the changing location of the plane and re-aimed the gun until the plane was shot down.

34 Wiener – Radar and Human Factor Imitation
The system imitated human functions and performed them more effectively. 这个系统模拟人的功能，并且比人更为有效。 The system imitated human functions and performed them more effectively.

35 Feedback Feedback 反馈 The anti-aircraft gun demonstrates the cybernetic principle of feedback. Feedback is information about the results of a process which is used to change the process. The radar provided information about the changes in location of the enemy airplane and this information was used to correct the aiming of the gun. 高射防空炮运用了事理学中的反馈原理。反馈是有关过程结果的信息，这个结果反过来又被用来改变过程。雷达提供了敌人飞机的方位的变化信息来调节高射炮的瞄准。 The anti-aircraft gun demonstrates the cybernetic principle of feedback. Feedback is information about the results of a process which is used to change the process. The radar provided information about the changes in location of the enemy airplane and this information was used to correct the aiming of the gun.

36 使用反馈来调节系统的一个更为普遍的例子是供暖系统中的温度计。
Feedback – Thermostat A more familiar example of the use of feedback to regulate a system is the common thermostat for heating a room. 使用反馈来调节系统的一个更为普遍的例子是供暖系统中的温度计。 A more familiar example of the use of feedback to regulate a system is the common thermostat for heating a room.

37 Thermostat Feedback Example
Room Temperature Rises to 700 房间温度到了华氏70° If the heating system is adjusted, as is common, to allow a maximum of 2 degrees variation, when the thermostat is set at 68 degrees the temperature will rise to 70 degrees . . . 如果供暖系统被调整为允许华氏2 °的误差时，当温度计设定在华氏68°时，实际温度会上升到华氏70°… If the heating system is adjusted, as is common, to allow a maximum of 2 degrees variation, when the thermostat is set at 68 degrees the temperature will rise to 70 degrees . . .

38 Thermostat Feedback Example, cont.
Room Temperature Rises to 700 房间温度上升到70° Furnace Turns Off 炉子关闭 . . . before a temperature sensor in the thermostat triggers the furnace to turn off. . . . before a temperature sensor in the thermostat triggers the furnace to turn off. 这时候，温度计中的感应器才会把炉子关闭。

39 Thermostat Feedback Example, cont.
Room Temperature Rises to 700 房间温度上升到华氏70° Furnace Turns Off 炉子关闭 The furnace will remain off until the temperature of the room has fallen to 66 degrees . . . 炉子会一直关闭直到房间温度低于66°… The furnace will remain off until the temperature of the room has fallen to 66 degrees . . . Room Temperature Falls to 660 房间温度下降到华氏66°

40 Thermostat Feedback Example, cont.
Room Temperature Rises to 700 到华氏70° . . . then the sensor in the thermostat triggers the furnace to turn on again. …然后感应器会再次启动炉子 Furnace Turns On 开 Furnace Turns Off 关 . . . then the sensor in the thermostat triggers the furnace to turn on again. Room Temperature Falls to 660 低于华氏66°

41 Self Regulating System
The sensor provides a feedback loop of information that allows the system to detect a difference from the desired temperature of 68 degrees and to make a change to correct the error. As with the anti-aircraft gun and the airplane, this system – consisting of the thermostat, the heater and the room – is said to regulate itself through feedback and is a self-regulating system. 感应器提供了一个信息反馈环，使得系统能够发觉到房间温度与68°的理想温度之间的差异，从而做出变动来改正错误。与高射炮与飞机一样，这个系统包括了温度调节计、供暖器与房间，被认为能够通过反馈来调节自身，是一个自我调节系统。 The sensor provides a feedback loop of information that allows the system to detect a difference from the desired temperature of 68 degrees and to make a change to correct the error. As with the anti-aircraft gun and the airplane, this system – consisting of the thermostat, the heater and the room – is said to regulate itself through feedback and is a self-regulating system.

42 Human Body – Feedback Leading to System Regulation
The human body is one of the richest sources of examples of feedback that leads to the regulation of a system. For example, when your stomach is empty, information is passed to your brain. 人类的身体是一个具有丰富的反馈系统的例子，能够调节系统。例如，你的胃空了的时候，信息被传递到你的大脑。 The human body is one of the richest sources of examples of feedback that leads to the regulation of a system. For example, when your stomach is empty, information is passed to your brain.

43 Feedback – Corrective Action
When you have taken corrective action, by eating, your brain is similarly notified that your stomach is satisfied. 当你吃了东西，也就是做了正确的纠错动作之后，你的大脑就类似于被通知说，你的胃已经满意了。 When you have taken corrective action, by eating, your brain is similarly notified that your stomach is satisfied.

44 Feedback – Hunger Example
In a few hours, the process starts all over again. This feedback loop continues throughout our lives. 几个小时后，这个过程会再次开始。这个反馈环贯穿我们一生。 Stomach Feels Empty 胃空了 Time 时间 In a few hours, the process starts all over again. This feedback loop continues throughout our lives. Stomach Feels Full 饱了 Person Eats 吃

45 Human Body and Cybernetics Studies
The human body is such a marvel of self-regulation that early cyberneticians studied its processes and used it as a model to design machines that were self-regulating. One famous machine called the homeostat was constructed in the 1940s by a British scientist, Ross Ashby. 人类的身体是如此惊奇的一个自我调节系统，早期的事理学家们研究其过程并将其作为设计自我调节机器的模型。内稳态模拟器是一个非常有名的机器，是1940年代由英国的一个科学家叫做Ross Ashby的发明的。 The human body is such a marvel of self-regulation that early cyberneticians studied its processes and used it as a model to design machines that were self-regulating. One famous machine called the homeostat was constructed 30 years ago by a British scientist, Ross Ashby.

46 就像人体保持华氏98.6°的体温一样，内稳态模拟器能够不受外界的影响而维持同样的电流。
Homeostat Just as the human body maintains a 98.6 degree temperature the homeostat could maintain the same electrical current, despite changes from the outside. 就像人体保持华氏98.6°的体温一样，内稳态模拟器能够不受外界的影响而维持同样的电流。 Just as the human body maintains a 98.6 degree temperature the homeostat could maintain the same electrical current, despite changes introduced from the outside.

47 Homeostasis 内稳态 The homeostat, the human being, and the thermostat all are said to maintain homeostasis or equilibrium, through feedback loops of various kinds. It does not matter how the information is carried – just that the regulator is informed of some change which calls for some kind of adaptive behavior. 内稳态模拟器，人类，还有温度计都是通过各种不同的反馈环在保持一个内稳态或者平衡。信息怎么运载的并不重要，不过是调节器被通知有一些变化，需要做一些调整行为。 The homeostat, the human being, and the thermostat all are said to maintain homeostasis or equilibrium, through feedback loops of various kinds. It does not matter how the information is carried – just that the regulator is informed of some change which calls for some kind of adaptive behavior.

48 Grey Walter – Self Regulating Man and Animals
Another scientist, Grey Walter, also pursued the concept of imitating the self-regulating features of man and animals. 另外一个科学家， Grey Walter，也研究了模拟人与动物的自我调节的概念。 Another scientist, Grey Walter, also pursued the concept of imitating the self-regulating features of man and animals.

49 Grey Walter – Mechanical Tortoises
His favorite project was building mechanical 'tortoises' that would, like this live tortoise, move about freely and have certain attributes of an independent life. 他最钟爱的项目就是制造机器”乌龟“，它可以像这个活的真乌龟一样可以自由走动，并且具有一个独立生命体的某些特征。 His favorite project was building mechanical 'tortoises' that would, like this live tortoise, move about freely and have certain attributes of an independent life.

50 Grey Walter and Family Walter is pictured here with his wife Vivian, their son Timothy, and Elsie the tortoise. Elsie has much in common with Timothy. Just as Timothy seeks out food, which is stored in his body in the form of fat, Elsie seeks out light which she 'feeds' on and transforms into electrical energy which charges an accumulator inside her. Then she's ready for a nap, just like Timothy after a meal, in an area of soft light. 这是Walter与他妻子及儿子Timothy的照片，还有那个机器乌龟Elsie。Elsie与Timothy有许多相似之处。正如Timothy会寻找食物，然后在身体里以脂肪的形式储存起来，Elsie会寻找光，并将光转换成电能储存在身体的蓄电池中。然后就像Timothy吃饭后要小憩一样，Elsie也会在柔和的光亮处休息一会儿。 Walter is pictured here with his wife Vivian, their son Timothy, and Elsie the tortoise. Elsie has much in common with Timothy. Just as Timothy seeks out food, which is stored in his body in the form of fat, Elsie seeks out light which she 'feeds' on and transforms into electrical energy which charges an accumulator inside her. Then she's ready for a nap, just like Timothy after a meal, in an area of soft light.

51 尽管Elsie的行为是模拟人类的，她的构造可完全不一样。左图的照片就是壳子下面她的构造。
The Anatomy of Elsie Although Elsie's behavior imitates that of a human, her anatomy is very different. This is what Elsie looks like underneath her shell. 尽管Elsie的行为是模拟人类的，她的构造可完全不一样。左图的照片就是壳子下面她的构造。 Although Elsie's behavior imitates that of a human, her anatomy is very different. This is what Elsie looks like underneath her shell. She looks a lot more like the inside of a transistor radio than . . .

52 Simulating a Human’s Function
She looks a lot more like the inside of a transistor radio than . . . 她更像是一个晶体管收音机的内部构造… . . . the inside of a human body. But as a cybernetician, Walter was not interested in imitating the physical form of a human being, but in simulating a human's function.

53 Simulating a Human’s Function
. . . the inside of a human body. But as a cybernetician, Walter was not interested in imitating the physical form of a human being, but in simulating a human's functions. 而不像一个人。但是作为一个事理学家，Walter的兴趣并不在于模拟人类的身体形式，而是要模拟人类的功能。 . . . the inside of a human body. But as a cybernetician, Walter was not interested in imitating the physical form of a human being, but in simulating a human's function.

54 Not What Is, but What Does it Do?
Cybernetics does not ask . . . 事理学家询问的不是… “What Is This Thing?” 这个东西是什么？ “What Does it Do?” 它是做什么的？ . . . but . . . …而是… Cybernetics does not ask “What Is This Thing?”, but, “What Does it Do?”

55 Simulating Human Functions
Grey Walter did not attempt to simulate the physical form of a human, as does a sculptor, but to simulate human functions. Grey Walter并不想像雕塑家一样去模拟人的身体形态，而是要模仿人的行为功能。 Grey Walter did not attempt to simulate the physical form of a human, as does a sculptor, but to simulate human functions.

56 Not Objects, but Processes
In other words, he viewed humans . . 换句话说，他看人体…. Not as Objects, 并不是一个物体 Processes 一个过程 . . . but as 而是… In other words, he viewed humans Not as Objects but as Processes

57 Designs to Help with Human Tasks
For centuries, people have designed machines to help with human tasks and not just tasks requiring muscle power. 几个世纪以来，人类设计了帮助人们完成任务的机器，这些任务并不仅仅是用肌肉力量就可以完成的。 图为音乐木偶（像八音盒那样的机器）。 For centuries, people have designed machines to help with human tasks and not just tasks requiring muscle power.

58 像报时的布谷鸟钟与八音盒这样的模拟人或动物行为的自动控制在1700年代很流行，能够思考的机器早在电脑发明前很久就一直是人类所向往的。
Automata Automata, such as the little moving figures of people or animals that emerge from cuckoo clocks and music boxes, were popular in the 1700's and machines capable of thinking were a subject for speculation long before the electronic computer was invented. 像报时的布谷鸟钟与八音盒这样的模拟人或动物行为的自动控制在1700年代很流行，能够思考的机器早在电脑发明前很久就一直是人类所向往的。 Automata, such as the little moving figures of people or animals that emerge from cuckoo clocks and music boxes, were popular in the 1700's and machines capable of thinking were a subject for speculation long before the electronic computer was invented.

59 Macy Foundation Meetings
From 1946 to 1953 there was a series of meetings to discuss feedback loops and circular causality in self-regulating systems. 1946到1953，有一系列的会议在讨论自我调节系统中的反馈环与循环因果关系。 The meetings, sponsored by the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, were interdisciplinary, attended by engineers, mathematicians, neurophysiologists, and others. 由梅西基金会赞助的会议是一个跨学科会议，集中了工程师、数学家、神经生理学家以及其他许多领域的专家。 From 1944 to 1954 there was a series of meetings to discuss these ideas about feedback loops and circular causality in self-regulating systems. The meetings, sponsored by the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, were interdisciplinary, attended by engineers, mathematicians, neurophysiologists, and others.

60 Professionals Speak Different Languages
The chairman of these meetings, Warren McCulloch, wrote that these scientists had great difficulty understanding each other, because each had his or her own professional language. 这些会议的主席， Warren McCulloch，写道这些科学家很难彼此理解，因为每个人都在用自己的专业语言。 The chairman of these meetings, Warren McCulloch, wrote that these scientists had great difficulty in understanding each other, because each had his own professional language.

61 Margaret Mead Breaks A Tooth
There were heated arguments that were so exciting that Margaret Mead, who was in attendance, once did not even notice that she had broken a tooth until after the meeting. 会议的讨论非常激烈，以至于Margaret Mead在一次会议之后才发现她在会上把自己的一颗牙咬坏了。 There were heated arguments that were so exciting that Margaret Mead, who was in attendance, once did not even notice that she had broken a tooth until after the meeting.

62 Meetings Calm with Common Experiences
The later meetings went somewhat more calmly as the members developed a common set of experiences. 后来的会议就较为平和了，因为大家有了一系列共同的经验，语言趋同一致，可以互相理解了。 The later meetings went somewhat more calmly as the members developed a common set of experiences.

63 Laying the Groundwork for Cybernetics
These meetings, along with the 1948 publication of Norbert Wiener's book titled 'Cybernetics,' served to lay the groundwork for the development of cybernetics as we know it today. 这些会议，与1948年Norbert Wiener的《事理学》一书一起，奠定了我们今天所知的事理学的基础。 These meetings, along with the 1948 publication of Norbert Wiener's book titled 'Cybernetics,' served to lay the groundwork for the development of cybernetics as we know it today.

64 Prominent Early Cyberneticians
Here is a photograph taken in the 1950s of the four prominent early cyberneticians that you have already met. From left to right they are: Ross Ashby of homeostat fame; Warren McCulloch, organizer of the Macy Foundation meetings; Grey Walter, creator of Elsie, the tortoise; and Norbert Wiener, who suggested that the field be called ‘Cybernetics.' 下图为1950年代拍摄的4位著名的事理学家。从左至右为：内稳态模拟器的Ross Ashby，梅西会议的组织者Warren McCulloch，乌龟Elsie的创造者Grey Walter，及将学科名称建议为事理学的Norbert Wiener。 Here is an unusual photograph taken in the 1950s of the four prominent early cyberneticians that you have already met. From left to right they are: Ross Ashby of homeostat fame; Warren McCulloch, organizer of the Macy Foundation meetings; Grey Walter, creator of Elsie, the tortoise; and Norbert Wiener, who suggested that the field be called ‘Cybernetics.'

65 Neurophysiology, Mathematics, and Philosophy
Neurophysiology 神经生理学 + Mathematics 数学 + Philosophy 哲学 Warren McCulloch was a key figure in enlarging the scope of cybernetics. Although a psychiatrist by training, McCulloch combined his knowledge of neurophysiology, mathematics, and philosophy to better understand a very complex system . . . Warren McCulloch是扩大事理学范畴上的一位重要人物。作为一位经过训练的精神病专家，他将自己在神经生理学、数学与物理的知识结合起来以更好地理解复杂系统。 Warren McCulloch was a key figure in enlarging the scope of cybernetics. Although a psychiatrist by training, McCulloch combined his knowledge of neurophysiology, mathematics, and philosophy to better understand a very complex system . . .

66 The Human Nervous System
…和人类的神经系统。 . . . the human nervous system.

67 Human Nervous System and Mathematical Equations
He believed that the functioning of the nervous system could be described in the precise language of mathematics. 他相信神经系统的功能能够用非常精确的数学语言来描述。 He believed that the functioning of the nervous system could be described in the precise language of mathematical equations.

68 例如，他开发出一个方程式，用来解释了这样一个事实，就是当一个冰块在短暂的时间内碰触到皮肤的时候，皮肤会很荒谬地感觉到热而不是冷。
Cold = Hot For example, he developed an equation which explained the fact that when a cold object such as an ice cube touches the skin for a brief instant, paradoxically it gives the sensation of heat rather than cold. 例如，他开发出一个方程式，用来解释了这样一个事实，就是当一个冰块在短暂的时间内碰触到皮肤的时候，皮肤会很荒谬地感觉到热而不是冷。 For example, he developed an equation which explained the fact that when a cold object such as an ice cube touches the skin for a brief instant, paradoxically it gives the sensation of heat rather than cold.

69 Neurophysiology, Mathematics and Philosophy
Neurophysiology 神经生理学 + Mathematics 数学 + Philosophy 哲学 McCulloch used not only mathematics and neurophysiology to understand the nervous system but also philosophy – a rare combination. Scientists and philosophers are often considered miles apart in their interests – scientists study real, concrete, . . . McCulloch used not only mathematics and neurophysiology to understand the nervous system but also philosophy – a rare combination. Scientists and philosophers are often considered miles apart in their interests – scientists study real, concrete, . . . Warren McCulloch 不仅用数学与神经生理学来理解神经系统，他还用到了哲学，这是一种很少见的组合。科学家与哲学家通常被认为是风马牛不相及的学科，科学家研究真实的、具体的…

70 . . . physical things, like plants, . . . …物质的事物，例如植物…

71 Animals . . . animals, . . …动物… . . . . animals, . . .

72 . . . and minerals, while philosophers, . .
…矿石，而哲学家们…. . . . and minerals, while philosophers, . . .

73 Abstract Ideas, Thoughts, and Concepts
. . . study abstract things like ideas, thoughts, and concepts. …研究的是抽象的东西，像想法、思想以及概念。 . . . study abstract things like ideas, thoughts, and concepts.

74 Epistemology = Study of Knowledge
McCulloch could see that there is a connection between the science of neurophysiology and a branch of philosophy called epistemology, which is the study of knowledge. Warren McCulloch能够发现在作为科学的神经生理学与哲学的一个分枝——认识论，也就是知识的学习——之间有一种联系。 McCulloch could see that there is a connection between the science of neurophysiology and a branch of philosophy called epistemology, which is the study of knowledge.

75 Knowledge – Formed in the Brain
While knowledge is usually considered invisible and abstract, McCulloch realized that knowledge is formed in a physical organ of the body, the brain. …而知识通常被认为是不可见的，是抽象的， Warren McCulloch认识到知识是在人体的一个物理器官中形成的，即大脑。 While knowledge is usually considered invisible and abstract, McCulloch realized that knowledge is formed in a physical organ of the body, the brain.

76 The Mind – The Meeting Place Between the Brain and an Idea
Physical Abstract 物质的 抽象的 Brain Mind Knowledge 大脑 心灵 知识 The mind is, in fact, the meeting place between the brain and an idea, between the physical and the abstract, between science and philosophy. 心灵事实上是大脑与想法、物质的与抽象的，科学与哲学的交汇处。 The mind is, in fact, the meeting place between the brain and an idea, between the physical and the abstract, between science and philosophy.

77 Experimental Epistemology
Physical 物理的 Philosophical 哲学的 Experimental Epistemology 实验认识论 McCulloch founded a new field of study based on this intersection of the physical and the philosophical. This field of study he called 'experimental epistemology,' the study of knowledge through neurophysiology. The goal was to explain how the activity of a nerve network results in what we experience as feelings and ideas. McCulloch根据自己对物理与哲学交集的研究建立了一个新的领域。他将此称为”实验认识论“，用神经生理学来研究知识。目的在于要解释神经网络的活动是怎样产生我们所体验的感觉与想法的。 McCulloch founded a new field of study based on this intersection of the physical and the philosophical. This field of study he called 'experimental epistemology,' the study of knowledge through neurophysiology. The goal was to explain how a nerve network produces ideas.

78 Cybernetics = Regulation of Systems
Why is McCulloch's work so important to cyberneticians? Remember, cybernetics is the science of the regulation of systems. McCulloch的工作为什么对事理学这么重要呢？要记住，事理学是系统的调节的科学。 Why is McCulloch's work so important to cyberneticians? Remember, cybernetics is the science of the regulation of systems.

79 Human Brain – The Most Remarkable Regulator of All
The human brain is perhaps the most remarkable regulator of all, regulating the human body as well as many other systems in its environment. A theory of how the brain operates is a theory of how all of human knowledge is generated. 人类的大脑大概是所有的东西中最为非凡的调节器，调节着人的身体以及在自己环境中的许多其他系统。大脑是怎么运作的理论就是人类的知识是怎样产生出来的理论。 The human brain is perhaps the most remarkable regulator of all, regulating the human body as well as many other systems in its environment. A theory of how the brain operates is a theory of how all of human knowledge is produced.

80 Mind – Regulates Itself
Whereas an anti-aircraft gun and a thermostat are devices constructed by people to regulate certain systems, the mind is a system that constructs itself and regulates itself. We shall say more about this phenomenon in a few minutes. 高射防空炮与温度计是人造出来调节某些系统的，心灵是一个创立自己并调节自己的系统。我们马上就会更多地加以介绍。 Whereas an anti-aircraft gun and a thermostat are devices constructed by people to regulate certain systems, the mind is a system that constructs itself and regulates itself. We shall say more about this phenomenon in a few minutes.

81 Other Cybernetic Concepts
Other Concepts in Cybernetics 事理学的其他概念 Now that we have touched on some of the key people, their interests, and their contributions, we shall look at a few additional concepts in cybernetics. 我们介绍了一些主要人物、他们的兴趣及他们的贡献，我们还要看一些更多的概念。 Now that we have touched on some of the key people, their interests, and their contributions, we shall look at a few additional cybernetic concepts.

82 Law of Requisite Variety
One important concept is the law of requisite variety. This law states that as a system becomes more complex, the controller of that system must also become more complex, because there are more functions to regulate. In other words, the more complex the system that is being regulated, the more complex the regulator of the system must be. 一个重要的概念就是必要变异度定律。当一个系统变得越来越复杂的时候，系统的控制者一定也要变得更为复杂，因为有更多的功能需要调节。换言之，要调节的系统越复杂，系统的调节者就必须越复杂。 One important concept is the law of requisite variety. This law states that as a system becomes more complex, the controller of that system must also become more complex, because there are more functions to regulate. In other words, the more complex the system that is being regulated, the more complex the regulator of the system must be.

83 Thermostat Example, Revisited
Let's return to our example of a thermostat. 回到温度计的例子。 Let's return to our example of a thermostat.

84 如果屋子只有炉子，那温度计就可以相对简单，因为它只要控制炉子就行了。
Furnace = Simplicity If a house has only a furnace, the thermostat can be quite simple – since it controls only the furnace. 如果屋子只有炉子，那温度计就可以相对简单，因为它只要控制炉子就行了。 If a house has only a furnace, the thermostat can be quite simple – since it controls only the furnace.

85 Furnace + Air Conditioner = Complexity
However, if the house has both a furnace and an air conditioner, the thermostat must be more complex – it will have more switches, knobs, or buttons – since it must control two processes – both heating and cooling. 如果房子里既有炉子也有空调，温度计就会更复杂些，更多的开关、按钮，因为它必须控制加热和制冷两个过程。 However, if the house has both a furnace and an air conditioner, the thermostat must be more complex – it will have more switches and knobs – since it must control two processes – both heating and cooling.

86 Humans – Most Complex Nervous System
The same principle applies to living organisms. Human beings have the most complex nervous system and brain of any of the animals. This allows them to engage in many different activities and to have complex bodies. 同样的原理适用于活器官。人类具备任何一种动物中最为复杂的神经网络与大脑。这使得人能够从事许多不同的活动，具备复杂的身体。 The same principle applies to living organisms. Human beings have the most complex nervous system and brain of any of the animals. This allows them to engage in many different activities and to have complex bodies.

87 In contrast, some animals such as the starfish, . . .
Starfish System In contrast, some animals such as the starfish, . . . 相反，某些动物，例如海星… In contrast, some animals such as the starfish, . . .

88 . . . sea cucumber, . . .海参… . . . sea cucumber, . . .
Sea Cucumber System . . . sea cucumber, . . .海参… . . . sea cucumber, . . .

89 More Complex the Animal, the More complex the Brain
. . . and sea anemone have no centralized brain, but only a simple nerve network, which is all that is required to regulate the simpler bodies and functions of these sea animals. In summary, the more complex the animal, the more complex the brain needs to be. …还有海葵就没有中心大脑，而只有简单的神经网络，要调节简单的身体及这些海洋生物的功能，有这些就足够了。总而言之，生物体越复杂，大脑就需要越复杂。 . . . and sea anemone have no centralized brain, but only a simple nerve network, which is all that is required to regulate the simpler bodies and functions of these sea animals. In summary, the more complex the animal, the more complex the brain needs to be.

90 Social Systems The law of requisite variety not only applies to controlling machines and human bodies, but to social systems as well. For example, in order to control crime, it is not necessary or feasible to have one policeman for each citizen, because not all activities of citizens need regulation . . . 必要变异度定律不只可运用于控制机器和人体，还可用于社会系统。例如，为了控制犯罪，不需要也不可能警察与公民的比例为1：1，因为警察并不需要管公民的所有活动。 The law of requisite variety not only applies to controlling machines and human bodies, but to social systems as well. For example, in order to control crime, it is not necessary or feasible to have one policeman for each citizen, because not all activities of citizens need regulation . . .

91 Capability to Regulate
. . . just illegal ones. Therefore, one or two police for every thousand people generally provides the necessary capability for regulating illegal activities. …警察只需要管违法的行为就可以了。因此，每1000个公民有1－2名警察就可以控制违法行为了。 . . . just illegal ones. Therefore, one or two policeman for every thousand people generally provides the necessary capability for regulating illegal activities.

92 Regulation – Increase Complexity of Regulator and System being Regulated
In this case a match between the variety in the regulator and the variety in the system being regulated is achieved not by increasing the complexity of the regulator, but by reducing the variety in the system being regulated. That is, rather than hiring many policemen, we simply decide to regulate fewer aspects of human behavior. 在这个例子中，调节者与被调节的系统之间的相互吻合不仅在于增加了调节者的复杂度，而且在于减少了被调节系统的复杂度。也就是说，我们不需要增加警察的数量，只要决定少量的需要管理的人的行为就可以了。 In this case a match between the variety in the regulator and the variety in the system being regulated is achieved not by increasing the complexity of the regulator, but by reducing the variety in the system being regulated. That is, rather than hiring many policemen, we simply decide to regulate fewer aspects of human behavior.

93 Self Organizing Systems
The self-organizing system is another cybernetic concept, which we all see demonstrated daily. A self-organizing system is a system that becomes more organized as it goes toward equilibrium. Ross Ashby observed that every system whose internal processes or interaction rules do not change is a self-organizing system. 自组织系统是另一个事理学概念，我们每天都可以看到。一个自组织系统就是一个在走向平衡的过程中更有组织的系统。 Ross Ashby 观察到每一个系统，只要它的内在过程或者互动规律没有变化，这个系统就是一个自组织系统。 The self-organizing system is another cybernetic concept, which we all see demonstrated daily. A self-organizing system is a system that becomes more organized as it goes toward equilibrium. Ross Ashby observed that every system whose internal processes or interaction rules do not change is a self-organizing system.

94 For example, a disorganized group of people who are waiting . . .
Waiting in Line For example, a disorganized group of people who are waiting . . . 例如，一群散乱地站着在等车的人… For example, a disorganized group of people who are waiting . . .

95 The Line – A Self-Organizing System
. . . to take a bus will fall into a line, because of their past experience that lines are a practical, fair way to obtain service. These people constitute a self-organizing system. …车来了，他们会自动排队，因为过去的经验告诉他们排队是一个让大家得到服务的实用而公平的方式。这些人就组成了一个自组织系统。 . . . to take a bus will fall into a line, because of their past experience that lines are a practical, fair way to obtain service. These people constitute a self-organizing system.

96 Oil and Vinegar – a Self-Organizing System
Even a mixture of salad oil and vinegar is a self-organizing system. As a result of being shaken as shown here, the mixture changes to a homogeneous liquid – temporarily. 即使一瓶混合的沙拉油也是一个自组织系统。摇动一会儿后，这瓶油暂时就混合成一种稳定的液体了。 Even a mixture of salad oil and vinegar is a self-organizing system. As a result of being shaken as shown here, the mixture changes to a homogeneous liquid – temporarily . . .

97 Oil and Vinegar - Equilibrium
As the salad dressing is allowed to go to equilibrium, the mixture changes its structure and the oil and vinegar separate automatically. We could say that the mixture organizes itself. 当沙拉油趋于平衡后，混合液体的结构发生了变化，油醋自动分离。我们说混合液体组织了自身。 . . . as the salad dressing is allowed to go to equilibrium, the mixture changes its structure and the oil and vinegar separate automatically. We could say that the mixture organizes itself.

98 Self Organization Leads to a General Design Rule
The idea of self-organization leads to a general design rule. In order to change any object, put the object in an environment where the interaction between the object and the environment changes the object in the direction you want it to go. Let's consider three examples . . . 自组织原理导致了一个普遍的设计原理。为了改变一个物体，将物体放入到一个环境中，其中物体与环境的互动改变物体，成为你所想要的。我们来看三个例子… The idea of self-organization leads to a general design rule. In order to change any object, put the object in an environment where the interaction between the object and the environment will produce the desired change in the object in the direction you want it to go. Let's consider three examples. First, in order to make iron from iron ore we put the iron ore in an environment called a blast furnace. In the furnace, coke is burned to produce heat. In the chemical and thermodynamic environment of the blast furnace, iron oxides become pure iron.

99 Self Organization Leads to a General Design Rule
First, in order to make iron from iron ore we put the iron ore in an environment called a blast furnace. In the furnace, coke is burned to produce heat. In the chemical and thermodynamic environment of the blast furnace, iron oxides become pure iron. 第一个，为了从铁矿中分离出铁，我们把铁矿放置在高炉中，其中煤被燃烧产生热。在高炉这个化学和热力的环境中，铁矿氧化物变成了纯铁。 The idea of self-organization leads to a general design rule. In order to change any object, put the object in an environment where the interaction between the object and the environment will produce the desired change in the object in the direction you want it to go. Let's consider three examples. First, in order to make iron from iron ore we put the iron ore in an environment called a blast furnace. In the furnace, coke is burned to produce heat. In the chemical and thermodynamic environment of the blast furnace, iron oxides become pure iron.

100 第二个例子，对孩子的教育。孩子在学校中。
Educating Children As a second example consider the process of educating a child. The child is placed in a school. 第二个例子，对孩子的教育。孩子在学校中。 As a second example consider the process of educating a child. The child is placed in a school.

101 Educating Children, cont.
As a result of interacting with teachers and other students in the school, the child learns to read and write. 作为老师与其他学生在学校互动的结果，孩子学会了读和写。 As a result of interacting with teachers and other students in the school, the child learns to read and write.

102 Regulation of Business by Government
A third example is the regulation of business by government. To regulate their affairs the people of the United States adopted a Constitution that established three branches of government. By passing laws, Congress creates an environment of tax incentives and legal penalties which are enforced by the Executive Branch. 第三个例子。政府对商人的管理。美国人用宪法建立了三权分立的机制。要通过法律的话，议会要建立一个由政府强迫的具备税收优惠与法律惩罚的环境。 A third example is the regulation of business by government. To regulate their affairs the people of the United States adopted a Constitution that established three branches of government. By passing laws, Congress creates an environment of tax incentives and legal penalties which are enforced by the Executive branch.

103 Regulation of Business by Government, cont.
These incentives and penalties, which are adjudicated by the courts, encourage businessmen to modify their behavior in the desired direction. 这些优惠与惩罚，由法院进行调节，鼓励商人改正自己的不良行为。 These incentives and penalties, which are adjudicated by the courts, encourage businessmen to modify their behavior in the desired direction.

104 Regulation of Business by Government, cont.
Each case – the iron smelting furnace . . . 每个例子 － 铁矿分离.. Each case – the iron smelting furnace . . .

105 Regulation of Business by Government, cont.
. . . the school with its teachers and students . . . 老师与学生的学校… . . . the school with its teachers and students . . .

106 Regulation of Business by Government, cont.
. . . and government regulation of business can be thought of as a self-organizing system. Each system organizes itself as it goes toward its stable equilibrial state. And in each case the known interaction rules of the system have been used to produce a desired result. …以及政府对商人的管理都可以被看作是自组织系统。每个系统都在走向平衡状态的过程中组织自己。在每个例子中，已知的系统互动定理都被用来产生出想要的结果。 . . . and government regulation of business can be thought of as a self-organizing system. Each system organizes itself as it goes toward its stable equilibrial state. And in each case the known interaction rules of the system have been used to produce a desired result.

107 最近关于细胞的自动控制研究，以及对于不规则几何学与复杂性的研究，都可以看作是1960年代早期自组织系统工作的延续。
The recent work on cellular automata, fractal geometry, and complexity can be thought of as an extension of the work on self-organizing systems in the early 1960s. 最近关于细胞的自动控制研究，以及对于不规则几何学与复杂性的研究，都可以看作是1960年代早期自组织系统工作的延续。

108 Cybernetics – how Knowledge itself is Generated
So far we have talked mainly about how cybernetics can help us to build machines and to understand simple regulatory processes. But cybernetics also can be helpful in understanding how knowledge itself is generated. 我们讨论了事理学能够帮助我们制造机器并理解简单的调节过程。但是事理学也能够帮助我们理解知识自己是怎样产生的。 So far we've talked mainly about how cybernetics can help us to build machines and to understand simple regulatory processes. But cybernetics also can be helpful in understanding how knowledge itself is generated.

109 A Firmer Foundation for Regulating Larger Systems
This understanding can provide us with a firmer foundation for regulating larger systems, such as business corporations, nations, . . . 这个理解可以提供给我们一个更为坚实的基础来管理更大的系统，如企业、国家… This understanding can provide us with a firmer foundation for regulating larger systems, such as business corporations, nations, . . .

110 Firmer Foundation for Regulating the Whole World
. . . and even the whole world. …甚至整个世界。 . . . and even the whole world.

111 1960年代晚期，美国的事理学家Heinz Von Foerster
In the late 1960's cyberneticians such as Heinz Von Foerster of the United States, . . . 1960年代晚期，美国的事理学家Heinz Von Foerster In the late 1960's cyberneticians such as Heinz Von Foerster of the United States, . . .

112 . . . Humberto Maturana of Chile, . . . …智利的Humberto Maturana

113 . . . Gordon Pask and, . … 英国的Gordon Pask . . . Gordon Pask and, . . .

114 . . . Stafford Beer of Great Britain . . .

115 Second Order Cybernetics
. . . began extending the application of cybernetics principles to understanding the role of the observer. This emphasis was called 'second-order cybernetics.‘ …上述几人开始将事理学的原理运用于理解观察者的角色。这被称为二阶事理学。 . . . began extending the application of cybernetic principles to understanding the role of the observer. This emphasis was called 'second-order cybernetics.'

116 Dealing with Autonomous Systems
Whereas, first-order cybernetics dealt with controlled systems, second-order cybernetics deals with autonomous systems. 一阶事理学研究的是被控制的系统，二阶事理学研究的是自治系统。 Whereas, first-order cybernetics dealt with controlled systems, second-order cybernetics deals with autonomous systems.

117 Role of the Observer 观察者的角色
Applying cybernetic principles to social systems calls attention to the role of the observer of a system who, . . .

118 Applying cybernetic principles to social systems calls attention to the role of the observer of a system who, E 将事理学原理运用与社会系统引起了对系统观察者的角色的注意…

119 Separating Man from the System
. . . while attempting to study and understand a social system, is not able to separate himself from the system or prevent himself from having an effect on it. 观察者在试图研究和理解一个社会系统时，是无法将自己与系统分离开来的，也无法阻止自己对系统产生影响 . . . while attempting to study and understand a social system, is not able to separate himself from the system or prevent himself from having an effect on it.

120 Separating Man from the System, cont.
In the classical view, a scientist working in a laboratory takes great pains to prevent his own actions from affecting the outcome of an experiment. However, as we move from mechanical systems, such as those the scientist works with in the laboratory, to social systems, it becomes impossible to ignore the role of the observer. 从传统观点看，在实验室工作的科学家非常痛苦地要防止自己的行动影响到实验的结果。但我们从机械系统（科学家在实验室工作）转移到社会系统时，要忽视观察者的角色就不可能了。 In the classical view, a scientist working in a laboratory takes great pains to prevent his own actions from affecting the outcome of an experiment. However, as we move from mechanical systems, such as those the scientist works with in the laboratory, to social systems, it becomes impossible to ignore the role of the observer.

121 Margaret Mead For example, a scientist such as Margaret Mead who studied people and their cultures, could not help but have some effect on the people she studied. 例如，像Margaret Mead这种研究人类及其文化的科学家，肯定会对她所研究的人群产生影响的。 (Margaret Mead是著名人类学家。) For example, a scientist such as Margaret Mead who studied people and their cultures, could not help but have some effect on the people she studied.

122 Mead – Separating Man from the System
Because she lived within the societies she studied, the inhabitants would naturally, on occasion, want to impress her, please her, or perhaps anger her. 因为她就居住在自己所研究的社会中，居民们会自然地、时不时地想要给她留下印象，让她高兴，或者也许是激怒她。 Because she lived within the societies she studied, the inhabitants would naturally, on occasion, want to impress her, please her, or perhaps anger her.

123 Mead – Separating Man from the System, cont.
Mead's presence in a culture altered that culture and, in turn, affected what she observed. 她在文化中的出现改变了那个文化，反过来又影响了她所观察的人。 The fact of Mead's presence in a culture altered that culture and, in turn, affected what she observed.

124 Mead – Separating Man from the System, cont.
This 'observer effect' made it impossible for Mead to know what the society was like when she wasn't there. 这种‘观察者的作用’使得她无法知道这个社会在她不在那里时是什么样的。 This 'observer effect' made it impossible for Mead to know what the society was like when she wasn't there.

125 News Reporters – Affected by Background and Experience
A conscientious news reporter will always be affected by his or her background and experience and hence will necessarily be subjective. Also, one reporter is unable to gather and comprehend all the information necessary to give a complete, accurate report on a complex event. 一个称职的新闻记者总是会受到自己的背景与经历的影响，因此会带有主观性。同样，一个记者不可能收集所有必要的信息来对一件复杂的事件做出一个完整的、准确的报道。 A conscientious news reporter will always be affected by his or her background and experience and hence will necessarily be subjective. Also, one reporter is unable to gather and comprehend all the information necessary to give a complete, accurate report on a complex event.

126 Wise to Have Several People Study Complex Systems
For these reasons, it is wise to have several different people study a complex event or system. Only by listening to descriptions of several observers can a person form an impression of how much a description of an event is a function of the observer and how much the description is a function of the event itself. 由于这些原因，明智的办法是让几个人去研究一个复杂的事件或者系统。只有听取几个观察者的描述，一个人才能形成一个印象，知道有多少描述是属于观察者个人的，有多少是属于事件本身的。 For these reasons, it is wise to have several different people study a complex event or system. Only by listening to descriptions of several observers can a person form an impression of how much a description of an event is a function of the observer and how much the description is a function of the event itself.

127 Early Days – Cybernetics = Systems Seeking Pre-Defined Goals
Whereas, in the early days, cybernetics was generally applied to systems seeking goals defined for them, 'second-order' cybernetics refers to systems that define their own goals. 尽管如此，早期，事理学通常用于寻找既定目标的系统，二阶事理学则用于为自己定义目标的系统。 Whereas, in the early days, cybernetics was generally applied to systems seeking goals already defined for them, 'second-order' cybernetics refers to systems that define their own goals.

128 Now – How Purposes are Constructed
It focuses attention on how purposes are constructed. An interesting example of a system that grows from having purposes set for it to one that defines its own purposes is a human being. When children are very young, parents set goals for them. For example, parents normally desire that their children learn to walk, talk, and use good table manners. 它关注目标是怎样建立的。人类就是一个从让别人为他设立目标到他自己为自己设立目标的一个有趣的例子。孩子小时，父母为他设定目标。例如，父母通常想要自己的孩子学习走路，说话，有好的吃饭习惯。 It focuses attention on how purposes are constructed. An interesting example of a system that grows from having purposes set for it to one that sets its own purposes is a human being. When children are very young, parents set goals for them. For example, parents normally desire that their children learn to walk, talk, and use good table manners.

129 Pursuing Goals and Purposes
However, as children grow older, they learn to set their own goals and pursue their own purposes, such as deciding on educational and career goals, . 孩子大了以后，他们学会了为自己设定目标并追求自己的目标，如决定自己的教育和职业目标。. . However, as children grow older, they learn to set their own goals and pursue their own purposes, such as deciding on educational and career goals, . . .

130 Pursuing Goals and Purposes, cont.
. . . making plans to marry . . 计划结婚. . . . making plans to marry . . .

131 Pursing Goals and Purposes, cont.
. . . and start a family. 建立家庭 . . . and start a family.

132 Cybernetics – 1st Noted for Feedback
To review what we have learned, cybernetics was first noted for the concept of feedback. 回顾我们的学习，事理学首先注意到了反馈的概念。 To review what we have learned, cybernetics was first noted for the concept of feedback.

133 Human Body – Rich Example of Feedback
The human body is a rich source of examples of how feedback allows systems to regulate themselves, causing scientists to be interested in studying . . . 人体充满了各种例子，解释反馈是怎样允许系统来调节自身的，引起了科学家的研究兴趣 The human body is a rich source of examples of how feedback allows systems to regulate themselves, causing scientists to be interested in studying . . .

134 Studying the Human Body – Walking, Thinking, etc.
. . . and simulating human and animal activities, from walking to thinking. 并且模拟人与动物的行为，从走路到思考.. . . . and simulating human and animal activities, from walking to thinking.

135 Cybernetics – Studies Self-Organizing Properties
Cybernetics studies self-organizing properties and has moved . . . 事理学研究了自组织特性 Cybernetics studies self-organizing properties and has moved . . .

136 Cybernetics – Moved from Primary Concern with Machines
. . . from a concern primarily with machines . . . 并将最初的关注对象机器 . . . from a concern primarily with machines . . .

137 Cybernetics includes Large Social Systems
. . . to include large social systems. ..转向了更大的社会系统 . . . to include large social systems.

138 Da Vinci – Can we Master all Fields and Existing Knowledge?
Although we shall never be able to return to the times of Leonardo Da Vinci and master all fields of existing knowledge, we can construct a set of principles that underlie the behavior of all systems. 尽管我们再也回不到达芬奇的时代，一个人可以掌握所有的已知知识领域，我们却可以建立一系列的规则，解释出所有系统的行为 Although we'll never be able to return to the times of Leonardo Da Vinci and master all fields of existing knowledge, we can construct a set of principles that underlie the behavior of all systems.

139 Complexity is Observer-Dependent
Also, as cybernetics tells us, because the observer defines the systems he wants to control, complexity is observer-dependent. 而且，事理学家告诉我们，因为观察者定义了他所想要控制的系统，复杂性是随观察者而来的 Also, as cybernetics tells us, because the observer defines the systems he wants to control, complexity is observer-dependent.

140 Complexity is in the Eye of the Beholder
Complexity, like beauty, is in the eye of the beholder. 复杂性就像美一样，在每一个人的眼里是不同的。 Complexity, like beauty, is in the eye of the beholder.

141 Credits The History and Development of Cybernetics Translated By: Lei Yu Produced By: Enrico Bermudez Paul Williams Written By: Catherine Becker Marcella Slabosky 安斯图 Stuart Umpleby © 2006 The George Washington University: The History and Development of Cybernetics Narrated By: Paul Williams Produced By: Enrico Bermudez Paul Williams Written By: Catherine Becker Marcella Slabosky Stuart Umpleby