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1 This is perhaps the most important chapter in the textbook
This is perhaps the most important chapter in the textbook. It’s worth mentioning to your students that investing extra time to master this chapter will make it easier for them to learn much of the subsequent material in the book. This is also one of the longest chapters in the textbook, and this PowerPoint file is one of the most graph-intensive. Many students taking economics for the first time have difficulty grasping the graphs, which are critically important in this and all subsequent chapters in the book. So an extra degree of hand-holding might be appropriate. Accordingly, this PowerPoint has carefully detailed animations that build many of the graphs with great care. For example, we show a demand or supply schedule next to the axes, and highlight each coordinate pair in the table as the corresponding point appears on the graph. Please be assured that the presentation of graphs is more streamlined in subsequent chapters. In this early chapter, though, we do not want to leave any students behind. If your students are already very comfortable with scatter-type graphs, you may wish to simplify or turn off the animation on these slides, in order to get through them faster. 第六版 4 供给与需求的均衡 © 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.

2 本章我们将探索这些问题的答案: 需求曲线与供给曲线 供给与需求怎么决定物品出售的价格与数量 供给与需求,供给量与需求量
供给曲线,需求曲线的移动 市场是如何配置资源的 *

3 市场和竞争 市场是由某种物品或劳务的买者与卖者组成的一 个群体 竞争市场是有许多买者与卖者,以至于每个人对 市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场
In the real world, there are relatively few perfectly competitive markets. Most goods come in lots of different varieties—including ice cream, the example in the textbook. And there are many markets in which the number of firms is small enough that some of them have the ability to affect the market price. For now, though, we look at supply and demand in perfectly competitive markets, for two reasons: First, it’s easier to learn. Understanding perfectly competitive markets makes it a lot easier to learn the more realistic but complicated analysis of imperfectly competitive markets. Second, despite the lack of realism, the perfectly competitive model can teach us a LOT about how the world works, as we will see many times in the chapters that follow. 市场是由某种物品或劳务的买者与卖者组成的一 个群体 竞争市场是有许多买者与卖者,以至于每个人对 市场价格的影响都微乎其微的市场 在一个完全竞争市场(perfectly competitive market)里: 可供销售的物品是完全相同的 买者与卖者人数众多,以至于没有任何一个买 者或卖者可以影响市场价格,也就是说,每个 人都是“价格接受者” 本章我们假定市场是完全竞争的 * 2

4 需求 物品的需求量是买者愿意并且能够购买的一种物 品的数量
物品的需求量是买者愿意并且能够购买的一种物 品的数量 需求定理:认为在其他条件不变(收入,偏好,预 期等)时,一种物品的价格上升,对该物品的需求 量减少的观点 * 3 Demand comes from the behavior of buyers.

5 需求表 需求表: 表示一种物品的价格与需求 量之间关系的表格 例如: 海伦对拿铁咖啡的需求 注意海伦的偏好满足需求定 理 拿铁 咖啡 价格
拿铁 咖啡 价格 需求量 $0.00 16 1.00 14 2.00 12 3.00 10 4.00 8 5.00 6 6.00 4 需求表: 表示一种物品的价格与需求 量之间关系的表格 例如: 海伦对拿铁咖啡的需求 注意海伦的偏好满足需求定 理 *

6 海伦的需求表与需求曲线 拿铁咖啡价格 拿铁咖啡数量 拿铁 咖啡 价格 拿铁咖啡 需求量 $0.00 16 1.00 14 2.00 12
拿铁咖啡价格 拿铁咖啡数量 拿铁 咖啡 价格 拿铁咖啡 需求量 $0.00 16 1.00 14 2.00 12 3.00 10 4.00 8 5.00 6 6.00 4 *

7 市场需求与个人需求 市场需求量是所有买者在每一价格水平下需求量的总和 假设海伦与肯是拿铁咖啡市场上唯一的两个买者 (Qd = 需求量)
市场需求量是所有买者在每一价格水平下需求量的总和 假设海伦与肯是拿铁咖啡市场上唯一的两个买者 (Qd = 需求量) $0.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 价格 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 海伦的需求量 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 肯的需求量 市场需求量 + = 24 + = 21 This example violates the “many buyers” condition of perfect competition. Yet, we are merely trying to show here that, at each price, the quantity demanded in the market is the sum of the quantity demanded by each buyer in the market. This holds whether there are two buyers or two million buyers. But it would be harder to fit data for two million buyers on this slide, so we settle for two. + = 18 + = 6 9 12 15 6

8 拿铁咖啡的市场需求曲线 P Q P Qd (市场) $0.00 24 1.00 21 2.00 18 3.00 15 4.00 12
P Qd (市场) $0.00 24 1.00 21 2.00 18 3.00 15 4.00 12 5.00 9 6.00 6 P Q *

9 需求曲线的移动 需求曲线表示在其他条件不变的情况下,价格与 需求量之间关系的图形
需求曲线表示在其他条件不变的情况下,价格与 需求量之间关系的图形 这些“其他条件”是决定需求的非价格因素(也 就是决定买者对物品需求的除开物品价格的其他 因素):收入,相关物品的价格,嗜好,预期, 购买者数量等 改变它们会引起需求曲线的移动… *

10 需求曲线的移动: 买者的数量 买者数量的增加会增加每一种价格水平下需求量, 并使需求曲线向右移动 *
需求曲线的移动: 买者的数量 Income is the first demand shifter discussed in this chapter of the textbook. I chose to start with a different one (number of buyers), for the following reason: In discussing the impact of changes in income on the demand curve, the textbook also introduces the concept of normal goods and inferior goods. Students may find it easier to learn about curve shifts if the presentation focuses solely on a curve shift (at least initially) without simultaneously introducing other concepts. If you wish to present the demand shifters in the same order as they appear in the book, simply reorder the slides in this presentation. 买者数量的增加会增加每一种价格水平下需求量, 并使需求曲线向右移动 * 9

11 需求曲线的移动:买者的数量 如果买者数量增加,那在每一种价格水平P,需求量Q会增加(在本例中需求量增加为5) P Q * 10
P Q 如果买者数量增加,那在每一种价格水平P,需求量Q会增加(在本例中需求量增加为5) * 10 Beginning economics students often have trouble understanding the difference between a movement along the curve and a shift in the curve. Here, the animation has been carefully designed to help students see that a shift in the curve results from an increase in quantity at each price. (A more realistic scenario would involve a non-parallel shift, where the horizontal distance of the shift would be greater for lower prices than higher ones. However, to remain consistent with the textbook, and to keep things simple, this slide shows a parallel shift.)

12 需求曲线的移动:收入 正常物品(normal good)的需求与收入成正比:收 入增加会增加每种价格水平下的需求量,并使需 求曲线向右移动
正常物品(normal good)的需求与收入成正比:收 入增加会增加每种价格水平下的需求量,并使需 求曲线向右移动 低档物品(inferior good)的需求与收入成反比,收 入增加会使低档物品的需求曲线向左移动) *

13 需求曲线的移动:相关物品的价格 替代品:一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求量增加的两种物品
替代品:一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求量增加的两种物品 例如,皮萨与汉堡包。皮萨价格的上升会增加汉堡包的需求,并使汉堡包的需求曲线向右移动 其它例子:可口可乐与百事可乐,笔记本电脑与台式电脑,CD与音乐下载 If you are willing to spend a couple extra minutes on substitutes and complements, and have a blackboard or whiteboard to draw on, here’s an idea: Before (or instead of) showing this slide, draw the demand curve for hamburgers. Pick a price, say $5, and draw a horizontal line at that price, extending from the vertical axis through the D curve and continuing to the right. Suppose Q = 1000 when P = $5. Label this on the horizontal axis. Now ask your students: If pizza becomes more expensive, but price of hamburgers does not change, what would happen to the quantity of hamburgers demanded? Would it remain at 1000, would it increase, or would it decrease? Explain. Some and perhaps most students will see right away that people will want more hamburgers when the price of pizza rises. After establishing this, note that the increase in the price of pizza caused an increase in the quantity demanded of hamburgers. Then state the term “substitutes” and give the definition. Before giving the other examples (listed in the 3rd bullet of this slide), do a similar exercise to develop the concept of complements. Finally, give the examples of substitutes and complements from the 3rd bullet point of this and the following slides, but mix up the order and ask students to identify whether each example is complements or substitutes. * 12

14 需求曲线的移动:相关物品的价格 互补品:一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求量减少的两种物品
互补品:一种物品价格上升引起另一种物品需求量减少的两种物品 例如,电脑与软件。如果电脑价格上升,那人们会减少电脑的购买,因此也会减少软件的购买。软件的需求曲线向左移动 其它例子:大学学费与教材,汽油与汽车 *

15 需求曲线的移动:嗜好 对一种物品嗜好的增加会使那种物品的需求增加, 并使它的需求曲线向右移动 *

16 需求曲线的移动:预期 如果人们预期他们的收入将增加,他们对于昂贵餐厅的饮食需求现在就可能增加
预期会影响消费者的购买决定 例如: 如果人们预期他们的收入将增加,他们对于昂贵餐厅的饮食需求现在就可能增加 如果经济不好,人们会担心他们未来的就业保障,现在对新汽车的需求就可能减少 *

17 总结:影响买者的变量 变量 这些变量的变动将…… 价格 表现为沿着需求曲线的变动 买者的数量 使需求曲线移动 收入 使需求曲线移动
变量 这些变量的变动将…… 价格 表现为沿着需求曲线的变动 买者的数量 使需求曲线移动 收入 使需求曲线移动 相关物品的价格 使需求曲线移动 嗜好 使需求曲线移动 预期 使需求曲线移动 * 16 Students should notice that the only determinant of quantity demanded that causes a movement along the curve is price. Also notice: price is one of the variables measured along the axes of the graph. Here’s a handy rule of thumb to help students remember whether the curve shifts: If the variable causing demand to change is measured on one of the axes, you move along the curve. If the variable that’s causing demand to change is NOT measured on either axis, then the curve shifts. This rule of thumb works with all curves in economics that involve an X-Y relationship, including the supply curve, the marginal cost curve, the IS and LM curves (not covered in this book), and many others, though it does not apply to curves drawn on time series graphs.

18 供给 供给量:卖者愿意并且能够出售的一种物品的数 量 供给定理:认为在其他条件不变时,一种物品价 格上升,该物品供给量增加的观点 *
Supply comes from the behavior of sellers. 供给量:卖者愿意并且能够出售的一种物品的数 量 供给定理:认为在其他条件不变时,一种物品价 格上升,该物品供给量增加的观点 * 17

19 供给表 供给表: 表示一种物品的价格与供给 量之间关系的表格 例如: 星巴克拿铁咖啡的供应 注意星巴克的供给表满足供给定理
拿铁 咖啡 的价 格 拿铁咖啡 的供应数 量 $0.00 1.00 3 2.00 6 3.00 9 4.00 12 5.00 15 6.00 18 供给表: 表示一种物品的价格与供给 量之间关系的表格 例如: 星巴克拿铁咖啡的供应 注意星巴克的供给表满足供给定理 *

20 星巴克的供给表与供给曲线 P Q 拿铁 咖啡 的价 格 拿铁咖啡 的供应数 量 $0.00 1.00 3 2.00 6 3.00 9
拿铁 咖啡 的价 格 拿铁咖啡 的供应数 量 $0.00 1.00 3 2.00 6 3.00 9 4.00 12 5.00 15 6.00 18 P Q *

21 市场供给与个人供给 市场供给量是在每种价格水平下所有卖者的供给量之和
市场供给量是在每种价格水平下所有卖者的供给量之和 假设星巴克和coffee bean是这个市场上仅有的两个卖家 (Qs = 供应数量) $0.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 价格 18 15 12 9 6 3 星巴克 12 10 8 6 4 2 Coffee bean 市场供应数量 + = + = 5 + = 10 + = 30 25 20 15 20 Again, the assumption of only two sellers is a clear violation of perfect competition. However, it’s much easier for students to learn how the market supply curve relates to individual supplies in the two-seller case.

22 市场供给曲线 P QS (市场) $0.00 1.00 5 2.00 10 3.00 15 4.00 20 5.00 25 6.00 30 P Q *

23 供给曲线的移动 供给曲线表示其他条件不变的情况下,一种物品 的价格与供给量之间的关系
供给曲线表示其他条件不变的情况下,一种物品 的价格与供给量之间的关系 这里的“其他条件”是决定供应的非价格因素: 投入品价格,技术,预期,卖者的数量等 改变这些非价格因素会使供给曲线移动… “Non-price determinants of supply” simply means the things—other than the price of a good—that determine sellers’ supply of the good. * 22

24 供给曲线的移动:投入品价格 投入品价格的例子:工资,原材料价格
投入品价格的例子:工资,原材料价格 投入品价格的下降会使在每个产品在原价格下都更有利可图。因此企业会在每个价格下供应更多的数量,使供给曲线向右移动 In the second bullet point, “output price” just means the price of the good that firms are producing and selling. I have used “output price” here to distinguish it from “input prices.” * 23

25 供给曲线的移动: 投入品价格 假设牛奶价格下降,在每个价格水平,拿铁咖啡的供给量都会增加(在本例中增加5单位) P Q * 24
供给曲线的移动: 投入品价格 P Q 假设牛奶价格下降,在每个价格水平,拿铁咖啡的供给量都会增加(在本例中增加5单位) * 24 Again, the animation here is carefully designed to help make clear that a shift in the supply curve means that there is a change in the quantity supplied at each possible price. If it seems tedious, you can turn it off. In any case, be assured that, by the end of this chapter, the animation of curve shifts will be streamlined and simplified.

26 供给曲线的移动:技术 技术决定生产一单位的产出品需要多少投入品
技术决定生产一单位的产出品需要多少投入品 一个节约成本的技术改进与投入品价格下降一样 有相同的作用(生产成本降低),使供给曲线向 外移动。 *

27 供给曲线的移动:卖者 卖者数量的增加使供给数量在每一个价格水平下 都会增加,并使供给曲线向右移动 *

28 供给曲线的移动:预期 例子:中东事件会导致高油价预期 作为回应,油田所有者现在会减少供给,储备 一部分石油以便过段时间以更高的价格出售
例子:中东事件会导致高油价预期 作为回应,油田所有者现在会减少供给,储备 一部分石油以便过段时间以更高的价格出售 供给曲线向左移动 卖者一般都会根据未来价格变化的预期调整他们物 品的供给(如果物品不是易腐的) *

29 总结:影响卖者的变量 变量 这些变量的变动将… 价格 表现为沿着供给曲线的变动 投入品价格 使供给曲线移动 技术 使供给曲线移动
变量 这些变量的变动将… 价格 表现为沿着供给曲线的变动 投入品价格 使供给曲线移动 技术 使供给曲线移动 卖者的数量 使供给曲线移动 预期 使供给曲线移动 *

30 供给与需求的结合 均衡:市场价格达到使供给量与需求量相等的水平时的状态 P Q S D *
P Q 均衡:市场价格达到使供给量与需求量相等的水平时的状态 S D We now return to the latte example to illustrate the concepts of equilibrium: shortage and surplus. * 29

31 均衡价格 使供给与需求平衡的价格 P Q S D P QD QS $0 24 1 21 5 2 18 10 3 15 4 12 20 9
使供给与需求平衡的价格 P Q S D P QD QS $0 24 1 21 5 2 18 10 3 15 4 12 20 9 25 6 30 *

32 均衡数量 均衡价格下的供给量与需求量 P Q S D P QD QS $0 24 1 21 5 2 18 10 3 15 4 12 20 9
均衡价格下的供给量与需求量 P Q S D P QD QS $0 24 1 21 5 2 18 10 3 15 4 12 20 9 25 6 30 *

33 过剩 (超额供给): 供给量大于需求量的状态 过剩 会有16单位的过剩 P Q 例如: 如果 P = $5, S D 那么 QD = 9
供给量大于需求量的状态 P Q 例如: 如果 P = $5, S D 过剩 那么 QD = 9 QS = 25 会有16单位的过剩 *

34 过剩(超额供给): 供给量大于需求量的状态 面临过剩,卖者会通过降低价格来增加销量 过剩 P Q S D 这会使 QD 增加 QS减少…
供给量大于需求量的状态 P Q 面临过剩,卖者会通过降低价格来增加销量 S D 过剩 这会使 QD 增加 QS减少… …减少过剩 *

35 过剩(超额供给): 过剩 供给量大于需求量的状态 P Q 面临过剩,卖者会通过降低价格来增加销量 S D 这会使 QD 增加,QS 减少
供给量大于需求量的状态 P Q 面临过剩,卖者会通过降低价格来增加销量 S D 过剩 这会使 QD 增加,QS 减少 价格会继续下降,直到达到均衡价格 *

36 短缺(超额需求): 需求量大于供给量的状态 P Q 例如: 如果 P = $1 S D 那么 QD = 21 QS = 5
需求量大于供给量的状态 P Q 例如: 如果 P = $1 S D 那么 QD = 21 QS = 5 会有16单位的短缺 短缺 *

37 短缺(超额需求): 需求量大于供给量的状态 P Q 面对短缺,卖者会提高价格 S D 使QD 减少 QS 增加 …这会使短缺减少 短缺 *

38 短缺(超额需求): 需求量大于供给量的状态 面对短缺,卖者会提高价格, 短缺 P Q S D 使 QD 减少 QS 增加
需求量大于供给量的状态 P Q 面对短缺,卖者会提高价格, S D 使 QD 减少 QS 增加 价格继续上升直到达到均衡价格 短缺 *

39 分析均衡变动的三个步骤 分析均衡的变动: 1. 确定该事件是使供给曲线移动还是使需求曲线 移动(还是使两者都移动) 2. 确定曲线移动的方向
1. 确定该事件是使供给曲线移动还是使需求曲线 移动(还是使两者都移动) 2. 确定曲线移动的方向 3. 用供求图说明这种移动如何改变均衡价格和均 衡数量 Step 1 requires knowing all of the things that can shift D and S—the non-price determinants of demand and of supply. * 38

40 例子:混合动力汽车市场 P Q 混合动力汽车价格 S1 D1 P1 Q1 混合动力汽车数量 *

41 例 1: 需求移动 事件分析: 汽油价格上升 P Q S1 D2 D1 P2 Q2 P1 Q1
事件分析: 汽油价格上升 例 1: 需求移动 第1步:需求曲线移动,因为汽油价格影响混合动力汽车的需求,供给曲线不变,因为汽油价格并不影响生产混合动力汽车的成本 P Q S1 D2 D1 P2 Q2 第2步:需求曲线向右移动,因为汽油价格上升使混合动力汽车相对于其他汽车更有吸引力 P1 Q1 第3步:这种移动使混合动力汽车的价格上升,产量增加 *

42 例 1: 需求移动 仔细区分供给/需求曲线的移动和沿着供给/需求曲线的移动
注意:当混合动力汽车价格上升时,生产者的供应量会增加,即使供给曲线没有移动 P Q S1 D2 D1 P2 P1 Q1 仔细区分供给/需求曲线的移动和沿着供给/需求曲线的移动 Q2 *

43 曲线移动与沿曲线移动 供给变动: 影响供给变动的非价格因素使供给曲线移动(比如技术或投入品成本) 供给量的变动:沿着一条固定供给曲线的变动
供给变动: 影响供给变动的非价格因素使供给曲线移动(比如技术或投入品成本) 供给量的变动:沿着一条固定供给曲线的变动 需求变动: 影响需求变动的非价格因素使需求曲线移动(比如收入或买者的数量) 需求量的变动:沿着一条固定需求曲线的变动 “Supply” refers to the position of the supply curve, while “quantity supplied” refers to the specific amount that producers are willing and able to sell. Similarly, “demand” refers to the position of the demand curve, while “quantity demanded” refers to the specific amount that consumers are willing and able to buy. If you’d like to be a rebel, delete this slide and all references to the jargon it contains, and just use the terms “movement along a curve” and “shift in a curve.” Note, however, that this is not the official recommendation of Cengage/South-Western or Dr. Mankiw. If you’d like to cover this slide but make it move more quickly, delete the text next to each second-level bullet (starting with “occurs when”). Instead, give the information to your students verbally or rely on them to read it in the textbook. * 42

44 例 2: 供给移动 事件: 新技术降低了生产 混合动力汽车的成本. P Q S1 S2 D1 P1 Q1 P2 Q2
第一步:供给曲线移动,因为该事件影响生产成本。而需求曲线不变,因为生产技术并不影响需求 P Q S1 S2 D1 第二步:供给曲线向右移动,因为该事件降低生产成本,使在任何一个给定价格下生产都更有利可图 P1 Q1 P2 Q2 第三步:这种移动使价格下降,产量增加 *

45 例3:供给与需求的移动 事件:汽油价格上升与新 技术降低生产成本 P Q S1 S2 D2 D1 P2 Q2 P1 Q1
第1步:两条曲线都移动 P2 Q2 P1 Q1 第2步:两条曲线都向右移动 第3步:产量增加,但价格不确定。如果需求相对于供给增加的更多,那价格上升 *

46 例 3: 供给与需求的移动 如果供给相对于需求增加更多,那价格下降 P Q 事件:汽油价格上升与新技术降低生产成本 S1 S2 D2 D1
第3步:继续 P1 Q1 如果供给相对于需求增加更多,那价格下降 P2 Q2 *

47 结论:价格如何配置资源 第一章中讨论的经济学十大原理之一是: 市场通常是一种组织经济活动的好方法
第一章中讨论的经济学十大原理之一是: 市场通常是一种组织经济活动的好方法 在市场经济中,价格调整使供给与需求相等。这 些均衡价格是引导经济决策,从而配置稀缺资源 的信号 In the textbook, the conclusion of this chapter offers some very nice elaboration on the second bullet point. There is also an “In the News” box with a very nice article titled “In Praise of Price Gouging.” * 46

48 作业 P77 1; P78 11,13,14题。 下节课课前学号尾号为3,4,5的同学交作业。 *
In the textbook, the conclusion of this chapter offers some very nice elaboration on the second bullet point. There is also an “In the News” box with a very nice article titled “In Praise of Price Gouging.” * 47


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