EFL/ESL Teaching Research 教学科研与论文写作 -1 张莲 北京外国语大学 英语学院 Tuesday, Nov. 15th, 2011

Agenda  What kind of research shall we talk about today?  Classroom-based research (CBR)  Case study research  Action Research  A case study  Practicum: Planning a research project of your own

What is research?  The search for knowledge  What kind of research, then?  Basic research?  Applied research?  Medical research?  Environmental research?  Educational research?  Linguistic research?  …?  Quantitative?  Qualitative?  Mixed?  …?

Classroom-Based Research Is it scientific? Can it be scientific?

What is classroom-based research (CBR)?  A broad umbrella-term  “Any empirical investigations that use the classroom (i.e., EFL/ESL classroom) as the main research site…that examines how teaching and learning takes place in context.” (Dörnyei, 2007, p. 176)  Mackey & Gass (2005, Second Language Research: Methodology and Design);  D ö rnyei (2007, Research Methods in Applied Linguistics);  Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2007, Research Methods in Education, 6 th ed.)

Why CBR?  Classroom is “the first proper place to look for insights and understanding about language pedagogy” ( Allright 1983, p.191 );  The systematic, intellectual inquiry by classroom teachers into the nature of teaching and learning in their classroom for the purpose of improving instruction （ Cross & Angelo, 1993 ； Cross & Steadman, 1996 );  “Classroom is a primary research site in applied linguistic investigations and the unique features of this context have a strong bearing on the way we can conduct research in it” ( Dornyei, 2007, p. 176 )

Modes of Classroom Research  心理实验研究 ( psychometric studies )  互动分析 ( interaction analysis )  话语分析 ( discourse analysis )  人种志分析 ( ethnographic analysis )  （ Chaudron,1988 ）  根据研究方法，特 别是研究设计、数据 收集方式的异同

EFL/ESL classroom  目 的：了解可能促进或阻碍语言习得 的因素（教育变量）；  理论框架：二语习得的框架；  终极目标：描写并预测学习者习得目标语 所经过的阶段，增进对语言习得过程的理 解, 从而优化课堂教学。

Focus of EFL Classroom Research  目标语 ( Krashen 1987, 1988; Lewis 1993, 1997 )  学生 ( Ellis & Barkhuizen 2005; Gao et al 2003; Cohen 1998; Wen &  Wang 2001 )  教师 ( Schön 1983; Calderhead 1984; Shulman 1987; Tsui, 2003; Borg  2003; Johnson 2009; Zhang 2004, 2005 ， 2011; Wu 2008;)  课堂教学的结构与模式 ( S inclair & Coulthard 1975; McCarthy 1991; Cazden 2001; Francis 2005; Lahlali 2007 )  教材 (Cunningsworth 1984,1991; Ellis 1997;Ma 2007)  以上几个关注点间的互动关系等  …… （ Gaies 1983; Allright 1983 ， Ellis 1985; Wen 1996 ； zhang 2004, 2005; Vygotsky, 1978; Bernstein 1991; Cazden 2001; Francis 2005; Lahlali 2007 ） 根据课堂的要素 / 研究所关注的 焦点来划分课堂 研究的类型

研究范式 (Research paradigms)  量化研究 ( quantitative paradigm)  质化研究 ( qualitative paradigm)  批判理论 (Critical Theory, e.g., CDA)  后现代主义（ Post-modernism ）  “ 范式 /paradigm ” ：一定历史时期被普遍接受的 一种广义的模型、框架、思维方式或是一种理解 现实的体系（ Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007 ）。 Mixed method research

量化研究 v.s 质化研究  实验法  相关性研究  调查法  数学模型  ……  人种志研究  个案研究  叙事研究  行动研究  …… Mixed method research!

影响选择研究方法的主要因素  世界观（方法论）  意识形态、政治、经济、文化的需求  研究理想与现实的矛盾  研究者个人经历

Case study research  定义／ definition  个案研究类型 (types)  介入模式 (modes of research): 调查、观察、参与和访问 ;  研究工具 : 问卷 (questionnaire) 观察 (observation)/ 实录 访问 (interview) 文件评估 (documentation review) 实物收集（ collection of physical artifacts ）  研究步骤（ steps ）  原则 (Tenets): 描写 (describing) 理解 (understanding) 解释 (explaining)

Defining case study research  …an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used. ( Yin, 1994/2002, p. 23 )

Why case study research?  教学研究的核心是 “ 理解并关注课堂事件 ” （ Tsui 2003, p. 32 ）；  课堂是教师和学生的 “ 现实生活（ real- life ） ”(ibid) ：复杂性和混沌性；始终处于流动、 变化的状态 (Zhang 2011);  质化研究的优势在于它对 “ 现实生活的有力把握 ” 和对复杂、变化的问题的理解和解释（ Miles & Huberman1994, p.10 ） 。

Types of Case Study Research-1  探索性（ exploratory ）  描写性（ descriptive ）  解释性（ explanatory ）  (Stenhouse, 1985; Merriam, 1988; Yin, 1994; Stake, 1994; Sturman, 1999; Duff, 2008)

Types of Case Study Research-2  单例个案研究 ( single-case study )  多例个案研究 (multiple-case study)  (Miles & Huberman, 1994)

Main steps in case study research  确立 / 定义研究问题；  选择个案并确定收集和分析数据的方法；  准备收集数据；  进入现场并开始收集数据；  评估与分析数据；  撰写个案研究报告  (Simons 1980; Yin 1994/2002; Stake 1994, 1995; Cohen et al 2007; Duff 2008 ）

Where do questions come from?  研究者个人研究经历  文献评析／交流  对现实的批判、质疑和反思

Methods of data collection  问卷 / questionnaire  课堂实况录象 / video-taped lessons  访问 / interviews  标注系统 /coding scheme :  IRF (Sinclair & Coulthard 1975);  FIAC (Flanders 1970)  SETT (Walsh 2006) thematic analysis (Linde, 1980); Singapore Pedagogy Coding Scheme ( )  软件 /software ： ELAN CLASS 4.0 (Nystrand, 1999/2004) AnnoTool ( 机助定性研究语料标注 )  文献与理论分析

Illustration of IRF pattern  T: What’s this? Initiation  Ss: It’s…er…it’s bananas… Response it’s banana.  T: Great. It’s a banana. Feedback/  evaluation

Illustration of FIAC: 互动分析系统 类别 总量 总量 % 89%9%2% 100% 教师话语学生其它

Illustration of ELAN

References  Hamel, J. (with Dufour, S., & Fortin, D.). (1993). Case Study Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.  Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: A sourcebook of new methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.  Patton, M. Q. (1980). Qualitative Evaluation Methods. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.  Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.  Yin, R. K. (1984/2002). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Major criticisms  无法提供信度和推广度的基础，其研究结果只 有 “ 显微 ” （ microscopic ）的效能；  研究者过度接触案例可能会导致结果偏差；  “ 研究者潜在的主观性 ” 会影响研究者对案例的感 知 ;  因此，有用，但只能用做探索的工具.

Yin’s responses to the criticisms  Small qualitative studies are not generalizable in the traditional sense, yet have redeeming qualities that set them above that requirement, in that generalization of results, from either single or multiple designs, is made to theory and not to populations ；  Such singularity is characterized as a concentration of the global in the local;  因此，个案研究相对较小的样本并不会把个案转化为 “ 显微 ” 的研究；即使是单一个案也是可以接受的，只 要它满足了研究目的； （ Hamel et al. 1993; Yin 1994/2002; Miles & Huberman 1984)

 A case study  Q-A, Interaction & Classroom Discourse

What is Action Research???  “simply a form of self-reflective inquiry undertaken by participants in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own practice, their understanding of those practices and the situations in which the practices are carried out” ( Carr & Kemmis, 1986, p. 162 )

 AR “is conducted by or in cooperation with teachers for the purpose of gaining a better understanding of their educational environment and improving the effectiveness of their teaching” ( Dörnyei, 2007, p. 191 )

Or, “a systematic, iterative process of  (1) identifying an issue, problem, or puzzle we wish to investigate in our own context;  (2) thinking and planning an appropriate action to address that concern;  (3) carrying out the action;  (4) observing the apparent outcomes of the action;  (5) reflecting on the outcomes and on other possibilities; and  (6) repeating these steps again” (Nunan & Bailey, 2009, p. 227)

To summarize, by nature,  Problem-driven  Practitioner/teacher-oriented  Situational, i.e., classroom-based  For the purpose of improving and change  collaborative  Cyclical/iterative

What AR is NOT (cf. pp )  Not the usual thing teachers do, i.e., thinking about their teaching  Not just problem-solving  Not research on OTHER people  Not the “scientific” method

Steps in action research  Step 1: problem identification  Step 2: Preliminary investigation  Step 3: Hypothesis formation Step 4: Plan intervention  Step 5: Take action and observe outcomes  Step 6: Reflect on the outcomes

Steps in case study research  确立 / 定义研究问题；  选择个案并确定收集和分析数据的方法；  准备收集数据；  进入现场并开始收集数据；  评估与分析数据；  撰写个案研究报告  (Simons 1980; Yin 1994/2002; Stake 1994, 1995; Cohen et al, 2007 ）

Steps in action research  Step 1: problem identification  Step 2: Preliminary investigation  Step 3: Hypothesis formation Step 4: Plan intervention  Step 5: Take action and observe outcomes  Step 6: Reflect on the outcomes

How is action research different from case study research?  Whose problem?  Who is the researcher?  Who benefits from the research?  Action as research; research as action

Cycles of AR (van Lier, 1994)  Cf. pp. 230  Step 1: problem identification  Step 2: Preliminary investigation  Step 3: Hypothesis formation Cycle I  Step 4: Plan intervention  Step 5: Take action and observe outcomes  Step 6: Reflect on the outcomes  Step 7: Identifying follow-up issue/problem  Step 8: Second hypothesis Cycle II  Step 9: Take action and observe outcomes  Step 10: Reflect on outcomes  … Cycle III

Problem identification  Poor attendance/concentration in class  Lack of parental involvement  Writing skills that do not meet grade-level expectations  Reading comprehension skills that prevent a student or a group of students from passing tests  Bullying or aggressive behavior on playground

Are they really the problems?  How do you know this is a problem?  What evidence do you have that this is a problem worth investigating?

Formulate researchable questionsresearchable  Narrow, specific and researchable  Answerable with “treatment” or “intervention” or “instructional strategy” within a predetermined period

Case analysis and discussion  What problems/puzzles/challenges do you have in your teaching and learning? Can you name just a few????  行动研究问题 (cf. Handouts-AR )  AR

Design and data collection  Outline the research:  What is the problem? How can I investigate into it and resolve it through cycles of action research?  Time schedule: when, where and with/upon whom?  Methods: questionnaire, interview, observation, test scores, journal entries ??  Quality control: triangulation (cf. p. 234)

Planning your own AR research  Think of your own teaching practice and situation and see if you have any problem, puzzle, issue to resolve.  In groups of four~6, work out a research plan for your AR. The plan should include:  The problem you identify  The preliminary investigation  The hypothesis  The action you’re going to take  The expected outcomes

Challenges and problems in AR  Lack of time  Lack of expertise  Lack of ongoing support  Fear of being revealed as an incompetent teacher  Fear of producing a public account of their research for wider audience  Are these all the challenges for you too?  Cf. 行动研究为什么搁浅了？

Allwright once commented,  “The classroom-based SLA research project was clearly taking up far too much staff time to be worth pursuing, and it was also requiring staff to learn research skills that were not likely to be helpful in their lives as teachers. So it was heavily parasitic upon their normal working lives, rather than supportive of them…” (Allwright, 2005, p. 354, one of the original promoters of AR)

Any possible solutions?  Can you think of any possible solutions?  Cf. Niu Ruixue