生命價值與哲學思維 第七週：倫理思維：效益主義 耿 晴 政大哲學系助理教授 1

分組報告 每 10 人一組，推選一位組長。 12 月中左右進行課堂分組報告。 題目：限定與本課程授課內容相關。例如：「從佛 教倫理學角度看捷運殺人事件」；「從笛卡兒惡魔 論證」 2

與「虛擬世界」想法相關的電影 資科三 鮑聖文同學提供： 駭客任務 系列 夏日大作戰 攻殼機動隊 系列 全面啟動 全面進化 楚門的世界 AI 人工智慧 香草天空 3

下週座談：賴青松先生 本週一討論課暫停一次。 簡介：一九七 ○ 年生的賴青松是現在所謂 U-Turn 族 的代表，從小走社會標榜的價值路線，卻在即將面 對中年時，厭倦城市，想擁有田園夢，回歸阿公那 一代對土地的疼惜，陪著下一代，找回心中的夢田。 深具環保意識的賴青松，決定完全不使用農藥與化 學肥料的自然栽培法，一個人照顧五甲大的地，種 植出無污染香甜的稻米，也將日本共同購買經驗帶 回台灣，成立穀東俱樂部，只要出資，大家就成為 這片稻田的穀東，委託賴青松種植，就能天天吃到 自己種的，最自然的稻米。 （轉載自民視異言堂 文稿） 4

11 月 11 日期中考試 時間： 11/11 日下午 4-6 點； 地點：上課教室 期中考題型： 4 題申論題。 範例：笛卡兒以及世親皆曾經對外在世界是否獨立 於我們的心靈存在提出挑戰，請你選擇其中之一， 提供理由說明你是否同意他對於外在世界的懷疑。 或者，你可以選擇針對電影 XXX 的情節，選擇笛 卡兒或是世親其中一種觀點，分析該情節如何支持 對於外在世界的懷疑，並且嘗試指出該電影的情節 是否存在什麼破綻。 5

Ethics 倫理學： What is the right thing to do? Michael Sandel: Justice MyOOPS 開放式課程 8 6

The Trolley Car Case “Suppose you're the driver of a trolley car, and your trolley car is hurdling down the track at sixty miles an hour and at the end of the track you notice five workers working on the track you tried to stop but you can’t; your brakes don't work. You feel desperate because you know that if you crash into these five workers they will all die.”

Modification (1) “This time you're not the driver of the trolley car, you're an onlooker standing on a bridge overlooking a trolley car track and down the track comes a trolley car at the end of the track are five workers the brakes don't work the trolley car is about to careen into the five and kill them and now you're not the driver you really feel helpless until you notice standing next to you leaning over the bridge is it very fat man. And you could give him a shove he would fall over the bridge onto the track right in the way of the trolley car he would die but he would spare the five.”

Modification (2) Suppose standing on the bridge next to the fat man I didn't have to push him, suppose he was standing over a trap door that I could open by turning a steering wheel like that would you turn it?

另外幾個案例 1 ，植物人是否應該被容許執行安樂死？ 2 ，垃圾掩埋場是否應該蓋在較為偏僻的地方？ 3 ，罪大惡極的殺人兇手不該判處無期徒刑而應該 槍決？ 10

兩種不同的倫理學考慮 結果論（ Consequentialism ）： J.S. Mill 密爾 : The greatest good/happiness for the greatest number of people 非結果論立場（ Non-Consequentialism ）： Deontological (principle of duty) Kant: 康德 : Good will

John Stuart Mill ( ) The foundation of morality: utility or the greatest happiness principle. Happiness: pleasure and the absence of pain.

效益主義是什麼？ The Greatest Happiness Principle. “Actions are [morally] right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, [morally] wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness.” Happiness: “pleasure and the absence of pain.” Unhappiness: “pain and the privation of pleasure.”

Pleasure as the ONLY ends “Pleasure, and the freedom from pain, are the only things desirable as ends; and that all desirable things … are desirable either for the pleasure inherent in themselves, or as means to the promotion of pleasure and the prevention of pain.” 14

效益主義的兩部分 1 ，效益的最大化原則 (maximizing principle) 。 2 ，效益：快樂是唯一本身就有價值 (intrinsic value) 的東西，痛苦本身是惡。 15

對於效益主義的挑戰 1 ，關於什麼是「效益」（ utility ） 2 ，關於道德行為需要考量的範圍 3 ，關於道德行為的動機 4 ，關於道德行為的界限 16

1 ，什麼是效益？等同於快樂？ 做一隻快樂的豬勝過做一個煩惱的蘇格拉底？ 豬比較容易滿足，而蘇格拉底「常懷千歲憂」。 17

Higher and Lower Pleasures 1. Distinction between HIGHER and LOWER pleasures. 2. “Those who are equally acquainted with both … do give a most marked preference to the manner of existence which employs their higher faculties.” 3. “Whoever presupposes … that the superior being is not happier than the inferior confounds the two very different ideas.” 4. Therefore it is “better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.”

疑問：貝多芬 vs. 周杰倫？ 我聽貝多芬與周杰倫的效益不同，因此聽周杰倫是 道德上惡的？ 19

2A ，最大多數人的幸福？ “Laws and social arrangements should place the happiness…or the interest of every individual as nearly as possible in harmony with the interest of the whole.” 20

對於人性過高的要求？ 我做行動 a 對我產生 x 的效益；我做行動 b 對某甲產 生 x 的效益，則沒有規則要求我應該做 a 或是 b 行動。 但這似乎違反我們自利的動機？ “As between his own happiness and that of others, utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly impartial as a disinterested and benevolent spectator.” (390) 試問：為什麼我必須考慮他人的效益極大化？ “its standard as being too high for humanity” (390)? 21

“The multiplication of happiness is, according to the utilitarian ethics, the object of virtue: the occasions on which any person (except one in a thousand) has it in his power to do this on an extended scale, in other words to be a public benefactor, are but exceptional; and on these occasions alone is he called on to consider public utility; in every other case, private utility, the interest or happiness of some few persons, is all he has to attend to.” ( ) 22

2B ，如果說謊可以達到更大效益 … 如果說謊可以達到更大的總效益，則我應該說謊？ 23

Mill’s Rule Utilitarianism “Thus it would often be expedient…to tell a lie. But in as much as the cultivation in ourselves of a sensitive feeling on the subject of veracity is one of the most useful, and the enfeeblement of that feeling one of the most hurtful, things to which our conduct can be instrumental; and inasmuch as any, even unintentional, deviation from truth does that much towards weakening the trustworthiness of human assertion, which is not only the principal support of all present social well-being, but the insufficiency of which does more than any one thing that can be named to keep back civilization, virtue, everything on which human happiness on the largest scale depends; we feel that the violation, for a present advantage, of a rule of such transcendent expediency is not expedient…” (391) 24

疑問：規則效益主義違反效益主義？ 規則效益主義的問題：違反效益主義精神。 25

3 ，關於道德動機的挑戰 我們通常認為道德動機才是決定一個道德行為是對 或是錯的判準，這個道德直覺與效益主義相衝突。 試問：對的道德動機若導致效益減少，則該行為是 對的或錯的？ 26

Consequentialist Approach “He who saves a fellow creature from drowning does what is morally right, whether his motive be duty, or the hope of being paid for his trouble.” (390) We should not “confound the rule of actions with the motive of it. It is the business of ethics to tell us what are our duties, or by what test we may know them, but no system of ethics requires that the motive of all we do shall be a feeling of duty…” (390)

道德原則的界限：來自「正義」概念的挑戰 效益主義是否會支持奴隸制度？安樂死？ 「立法將社會中智商低於 70 的人作為奴隸」？ 「立法將社會中已經完全沒有感知能力的植物人安 樂死」？ 28

Mill ：效益主義與正義的要求一致 符合正義的行為或社會制度不見得在每個場合都創 造最大的效益，但是依照符合正義概念的方式行動， 長期來說能夠創造最大的效益。 「說謊」的例子； 「私有財產」的例子。 29

反駁 Mill 不設立奴隸制度，產生的集體效益果真更大嗎？ 我們認為不應該設立奴隸制度，似乎跟該制度產生 多少效益無關，而與我們認為該制度違反人作為人 的尊嚴有關。 一個人就是不應該將另外一個人當做奴隸，無論如 此做能夠產生多大的效益。 效益主義似乎無法回答所有關於道德的問題？ ﹣﹣哲學家康德要嘗試證明「道德行為與效益無關」。 30

期中考試試題 期中考試題目： 假設現在要通過一個法律，規定個人財產在 1 億以 上的富人必須強制徵收 30 ％的資產來作為救濟社會 貧困之用，請問你是否贊成？理由為何？請你仔細 閱讀 Sandel 課程第三講，並且從中取材來回答。 Sandel 課程第三講： 8#lec3 8#lec3 31

下週討論課暫停一次 32