Impacts, Issues Bye-Bye, Blue Bayou Among many effects of global warming, coastal marshes in Louisiana are disappearing under rising water – along with habitat and revenues（歲入）

47.1 The Nature of Ecosystems 生態系的主要生物成員 (1) primary producers 生產者 Autotrophs 自營生物 (2) Consumers 消費者: Heterotrophs 異營生物 Herbivores 草食性動物 Carnivores 肉食性動物 Omnivores 雜食性動物 Parasites 寄生蟲 (3) Decomposers 分解者 (4) Detritivores 碎(屑)食者 A. 參與者概況： 1. 地球上每個地區的功能，就像是一個個的能量系統，會從太陽接收能量後，再傳給各種生物體。 2. 初級生產者(Primary producers)：為自營生物，能夠捕捉來自太陽的能量，並將這能量固定在有機化合物內。 3. 消費者(Consumers)：為異營生物，攝取其他生物的組織為食以獲得能量。 a. 草食者(Herbivores)：以植物為食。 b. 肉食者(Carnivores)：以動物為食。 c. 雜食者(Omnivores)：以各式各樣生物為食。 d. 寄生者(Parasites)：以活體宿主的體表、或是體內為居所，並從宿主身上取得能量來源。 4. 分解者(Decomposers)：也為異營生物，包括真菌、和細菌。它們從其他生物的排泄物、或產物獲取能量。 5. 清除者(Detritivores)：包括小型的無脊椎動物，會將有機物質分解為碎屑，並以部分的碎屑為食。 6. 生態系：是由多種生物間彼此的交互作用，以及生物與物理環境間的交互作用所組成。 a. 生態系：是開放的系統。表示其內能量的流動、和物質的交換，是具有循環性的。 b. 生態系：需要能量和養分的輸入，以及產生能量(通常是以產熱的方式)和養分的輸出。

1. 開放的系統。 2. 能量在生物體 之間(流動)循環。 3. 最後回歸環境。 Energy input, from sun Fig47.2 能量在生態系中流動的模式。 1. 開放的系統。 2. 能量在生物體 之間(流動)循環。 3. 最後回歸環境。 Producers Autotrophs (plants and other self-feeding organisms) Nutrient Cycling Consumers Heterotrophs (animals, most fungi, many protists, many bacteria) Energy output (mainly metabolic heat) Fig. 47-2, p.840

Red fox, an omnivore 雜食性動物 SPRING fruits insects rodents, rabbits birds SUMMER fruits rodents, rabbits insects birds FALL fruits rodents, rabbits insects 食物種類因季節而異 birds Red fox, an omnivore 雜食性動物 WINTER fruits insects rodents, rabbits birds

Structure of Ecosystems 生態系的結構 Trophic Levels 營養階層 1st - Primary producers 初級生產者 Autotrophs 自營生物 2nd - Primary consumers 初級消費者 Herbivores, Decomposers, Detritivores---異營生物 3rd - Secondary consumers 次級消費者 Primary carnivores 4th - Tertiary consumers 三級消費者 Secondary carnivores and parasites

Tallgrass Prairie: A Food Chain and Trophic Levels

Trophic Level carnivore (third-level consumer) hawk Fourth Trophic Level carnivore (third-level consumer) sparrow Third Trophic Level carnivore (second-level consumer) grasshopper Second Trophic Level herbivore (primary consumer) Figure 47.3 Example of a food chain and corresponding trophic levels in tallgrass prairie, Kansas. big bluestem grass First Trophic Level autotroph (primary producer) Fig. 47-3, p. 841

Structure of Ecosystems 生態系的結構 Torphic levels 營養階層 能量來源 舉例 第一營養階層 -- 1 生產者 -- 光合自營 -- 陽光 ----- 藻類, 樹 化學自營 -- 無機物 – 硝化細菌 第二營養階層 -- 1消費者 --草食性動物 -- 生產者-- 蛾幼蟲 分解者 -- 生產者-- 真菌 碎食者 --生產者-- 蚯蚓 第三營養階層 -- 2 消費者 – 1肉食性動物 -- 1 消費者 – 蜘蛛 第四營養階層 -- 3 消費者 -- 2肉食性動物 -- 2 消費者 – 貓頭鷹 寄生蠅

47.2 The Nature of Food Webs 食物網 Food chain :以直線順序，來表示生態系中的生物食性關係。大魚吃小魚， 小魚吃蝦米 Food web : “ Network of crossing, interlinked food chains involving primary producers, consumers, and decomposers” 將食物鏈縱橫交錯連結成網狀，包括初級生產者、消費者與分解者

食物鏈為何無法太長?? Lindemann’s efficiency: in lake, no secondary consumer if the NPP< 10g/ m2 year inhibition of evolution optimal foraging dynamic inhibition

SECOND TROPHIC LEVEL Primary consumers (e.g., herbivores) Food Webs 食物網 MARSH HAWK HIGHER TROPHIC LEVELS Complex array of carnivores, omnivores and other consumers. Many feed at more than one trophic level continually, seasonally, or when an oppportunity presents itself CROW UPLAND SANDPIPER GARTER SNAKE 黃鼠狼 獾 FROG 土狼 SPIDER WEASEL BADGER COYOTE 將食物鏈縱橫交錯連結成網狀，包括初級生產者、消費者與分解者 Badger 獾 coyote土狼 Weasel 黃鼠狼 Crow 黃鼠狼 SECOND TROPHIC LEVEL Primary consumers (e.g., herbivores) 地鼠 CLAY-COLORED SPARROW EARTHWORMS, INSECTS (E.G., GRASSHOPPPERS, CUTWORMS) PRAIRIE VOLE POCKET GOPHER GROUND SQUIRREL FIRST TROPHIC LEVEL Primary producers Fig. 47.5, p. 846

Model for a Food Web East river valley, colorado

Major Pathways of Energy Flow Primary source Grazing food webs Photosynthetic organisms to herbivores Detrital food webs Photosynthetic organisms to detritivores and decomposers

Food Webs 攝食食物網 碎屑食物網 Fig 47-6 能量在生態系中流動的情形，移轉的過程能量會流失。 有機廢物 屍體 攝食食物網 碎屑食物網 有機廢物 屍體 有機廢物 屍體 能量最後以 代謝熱散失 Fig 47-6 能量在生態系中流動的情形，移轉的過程能量會流失。

47.3 Energy flow through ecosystems Primary productivity 初級生產力 Gross primary productivity (總生產力) : Total energy trapped 光合作用 Net primary productivity(淨生產力): Total energy trapped – energy used 光合作用 – 呼吸作用 Trap陷阱 捕捉

Fig 47-10 全球初級生產力分布圖(三年衛星資料綜合結果)。 陸地: 深綠 (雨林，生產力高) 黃色 (沙漠，生產力低) Fig. 48.10, p. 873 Fig 47-10 全球初級生產力分布圖(三年衛星資料綜合結果)。 陸地: 深綠 (雨林，生產力高) 黃色 (沙漠，生產力低) 海洋: 紅 橘 黃 綠 藍 生產力: 高 低

Ecological pyramids 生態的金字塔 生態的金字塔種類 1. 數目塔 (Number pyramids) 2. 生物量塔(Biomass pyramids) 3. 能量塔 (Energy pyramids) 能量在各營養階層移轉的過程會流失。 在營養階層越低的生物，其數目越多， 在營養階層越高的生物，其數目越少。 A. 生態的金字塔： 1. 營養階層的結構，可透過金字塔的方式來作圖解。在塔底是由生產者組成，依次往上是消費者所組成。 2. 金字塔具有兩種基本型態： a. 生物量的金字塔(pyramid biomass)：供給生物體的能量大小差異，是根據每一個營養階層組成個體的重量來決定。 b. 能量的金字塔(energy pyramid)：來代表營養階層的組成量是最準確的，因為，它是以每一個階層的能量消耗為基礎。

Ecological Pyramids Top carnivores Primary carnivores Herbivores Decomposers Top carnivores Primary carnivores Herbivores Primary Producers

數目塔 (Number pyramids) Number of individual organisms Trophic levels 3consummers 2consummers 1consummers producers 3 354,904 708,624 5,842,424 Michigan bluegrass field 單位: 個體數 / year

Biomass pyramid 生物量(金字)塔 單位面積內的生物總量 小龍蝦 Gar長嘴硬鱗魚 crayfish小龍蝦 生產者 單位: g / m2 / year

Energy Flow at silver springs Energy loss with each trophic level 能量塔 (Energy pyramids) 單位: kcal / m2 / year Fig. 47.13, p. 851

Annual Energy Flow: Silver Springs

detritivores + decomposers = 5,060 carnivores 383 herbivores 3,368 top carnivores 21 detritivores + decomposers = 5,060 carnivores 383 herbivores 3,368 producers 20,810 Figure 47.8 Annual energy flow in Silver Springs measured in kilocalories (kcal) per square meter per year. Figure It Out: What percent of the energy carnivores received from herbivores was later passed on to top carnivores? Answer: 21/383 × 100 = 5.5 percent Fig. 47-8a, p. 845

1,700,000 kcal per square meter per year Energy Input 1,700,000 kcal per square meter per year Energy flow through living components B Every year 1,700,000 kcal of solar energy fall on each square meter of the Silver Springs ecosystem. 1,679,190 (98.8%) 20,810 (1.2%) producers C 98.8 percent of this incoming energy is not captured by producers. Energy in wastes, remains Energy lost as heat or to flow downstream Energy flow to the next trophic level 4,245 D Producers harness 20,810 kcal of energy, but transfer only 3,368 kcal to herbivores. The rest is lost as heat or ends up in wastes and remains. 3,368 13,197 herbivores 720 383 2,265 carnivores Figure 47.8 Annual energy flow in Silver Springs measured in kilocalories (kcal) per square meter per year. Figure It Out: What percent of the energy carnivores received from herbivores was later passed on to top carnivores? Answer: 21/383 × 100 = 5.5 percent E With each subsequent transfer, only a small fraction of the energy reaches the next trophic level. 90 21 272 top carnivores Energy output 20,810 + 1,679,190 5 16 detritivores and decomposers Total annual energy flow 5,060 1,700,000 (100%) Fig. 47-8b, p. 845

47.4 Biological magnification 生物放大作用 在生物體內無法分解或分解非常緩慢的物質，會經由食物鏈累積到較高階層的消費者身體組織中。 例如 DDT，是脂溶性的殺蟲劑，不易分解，會累積在脂肪內，結果造成生物放大效應。 水中濃度 0.000003 ppm Zooplankton 0.04 ppm Small fish 0.5 ppm Large fish 2 ppm Fish-eating birds 25 ppm Peregrine falcon Falcon隼 獵鷹

Fig. 47-7, p.848

DDT Residues (ppm wet weight of whole live organism) Ring-billed gull fledgling (Larus delawarensis Herring gull (Larus argentatus) Osprey (pandion haliaetus) Green heron (Butorides virescens) Atlantic needlefish (Strongylira marina) Summer flounder (Paralychthys dentatus) Sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus ) Hard clam (Mercenaria mercenaria) Marsh grass shoots (Spartina patens) Flying insects (mostly flies) Mud snail (Nassarius obsoletus) Shrimps (compsite of several samples) Green alga (Cladophora grcilis) Plankton (mostlky zooplankton) Water 75.5 18.5 13.8 3.57 2.07 1.28 0.94 0.42 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.16 0.083 0.040 0.00005 Fig. 47.8, p. 849

47.5 Biogeochemical Cycles生物地質化學的循環 陸生生態系 geochemical cycle Main nutrient reservoirs in the environment fraction of nutrient available to ecosystem herbivores, carnivores, parasites primary producers detritivores, decomposers 各種物質成分在生物體與地質化學之間循環不息

Nonliving environmental reservoirs Atmosphere Living organisms Nonliving environmental reservoirs Seawater and fresh water Rocks and sediments Figure 47.10 Generalized biogeochemical cycle. In such cycles, a nutrient moves among nonliving environmental reservoirs and into and out of the living portion of an ecosystem. For all nutrients, the portion tied up in environmental reservoirs far exceeds the amount in living organisms. Fig. 47-10, p. 847

Biogeochemical cycle 生物地質化學的循環 1. Hydrologic cycle (water cycle) 水循環 Fig 47.11 12 13 2. Carbon cycle Fig 47.15 碳循環 C 3. Nitrogen cycle Fig 47.19 氮循環 N 3. Sedimentary cycle Fig 47.21 沉積循環 P

47.6 Hydrologic Cycle 水分子是藉由蒸散作用、沉降作用、水分保留、蒸發作用等過程而被移動或儲存。 水分子可帶著營養物進出生態系。 集水區(watershed)可將雨水雪水匯集到河川。 營養物可被植物吸收避免隨水流失。 Rain and snow returns water to land Ocean currents and winds Evaporation “Watershed” Watershed is any region in which the precipitation becomes funneled into a single stream or river. The Mississippi river watershed extends across about a third of the continental United states. 大小不一

Environmental Water Reservoirs

wind-driven water vapor surface and groundwater flow atmosphere ocean land Precipitation onto land 111,000 wind-driven water vapor 40,000 evaporation from land plants (transpiration) 71,000 Evaporation from ocean 425,000 Precipitation into ocean 385,000 surface and groundwater flow 40,000 Figure 48.2 Earth’s tilt and yearly rotation around the sun cause seasonal effects. The 23° tilt of Earth’s axis causes the Northern Hemisphere to receive more intense sunlight and have longer days in summer than in winter. Stepped Art Fig. 47-11, p. 848

47.7 watershed exp. Fig 47-12 Studies of disturbances to a forest ecosystem. 研究森林 砍伐對生態系之影響 (a) 研究地點在 Hubbard Brook valley, New Hampshire。 (b) 量水堰 (c) 砍伐 + Herbicides (殺草劑) 處理三年後之結果。

Experimental Watershed Deforested area had greater calcium loss than undisturbed area 水中鈣的濃度

A Global Water Crisis Plenty of saltwater, little freshwater Two-thirds of freshwater use sustains agriculture Salinization Buildup of mineral salts in soil Stunts crop plants and decreases yields Aquifers are becoming polluted and depleted

Groundwater Problems in the United States

Desalinization Desalinization The removal of salt from seawater to increase freshwater supplies Requires a lot of fossil fuel Used mainly in places with large fuel reserves and small populations

global water crisis 水危機 l  地球上大部分的水太鹹﹐無法為人利用or灌溉。 Desalination : 蒸餾 逆滲透 l  Consequence of Heavy Irrigation 1. 將沙漠變“花園”! (極端例子) 2/3的人類用水(淡水)用於灌溉 2. Salination 鹽化  植物生長  產量 3. Water table 水層升高  地浸鹽化水中  根受損 (飽和)

{ { { ( ) l Water Pollution 水污染 1.來源：生活廢水﹐農業廢水(殺蟲劑﹑肥料) 發電廠&工廠廢水(放射性物質﹑熱﹑ 化學物質)。 2.處理：1°treatment : 過濾 氯殺菌 過濾 2°treatment : 微生物處理 3°treatment : 昂貴﹑實驗階段 應用於5%之國家 { 不能全殺 致癌 ( ) { {

羅德島州的實驗性質廢水處理裝置 布袋蓮水生植物 砂石過濾 蝦蟹 魚 布袋蓮水生植物 砂石過濾 蝦蟹 魚

Water needs in Taiwan People in Taiwan about 23 millions The water needs: 18.1 billion M3/Y for irrigation: 13.5 billion M3/Y for industry: 1.8 billion M3/Y for household: 2.9 billion M3/Y

The problems of water management in Taiwan 1. Water pollution in 21 main rivers(23% of the total length was polluted) 2. Eutrophication in dams 3. Land sink cause from the overuse of underground water(especially in south Taiwan)

47.7 Carbon Cycle Aerobic respiration 呼吸作用 ------> CO2 Fossil fuel burning 燃燒 Volcanic eruptions火山爆發 Atmosphere, soils, plant biomass, Ocean Largest holding stations for Carbon 以何種形式存在？ CO2 、 HCO3- 、 CaCO3- CO2 – fixation二氧化碳的固定 Photosynthetic autotrophs 光合作用

空氣污染 HCO3- CO3 - CaCO3 Los Angeles freeway diffusion between atmosphere and ocean HCO3- CO3 - CaCO3 BICARBONATE AND CABONATE DISSOLVED IN OCEAN WATER combustion of fossil fuels photosynthesis aerobic respiration MARINE FOOD WEBS producers, consumers, decomposers, detritivores incorporation into sediments death, sedimentation uplifting over geologic time sedimentation 空氣污染 MARINE SEDIMENTS, INCLUDING FORMATIONS WITH FOSSIL FUELS Los Angeles freeway Fig. 47.20, p. 856-57

火山活動 燃燒 呼吸作用 光合作用 ATMOSPHERE TERRESTRIAL ROCKS LAND FOOD WEBS (mainly carbon dioxide) volcanic action 火山活動 燃燒 呼吸作用 combustion of wood (for clearing land; or for fuel photosynthesis aerobic respiration TERRESTRIAL ROCKS 光合作用 sedimentation weathering LAND FOOD WEBS producers, consumers, decomposers, detritivores SOIL WATER (dissolved carbon) PEAT, FOSSIL FUELS death, burial, compaction over geologic time leaching runoff Fig. 47.15, p. 850-851

Fig 47.15 Loop of ocean water that delivers carbon dioxide to its deep ocean reservoir. It sinks in the cold, salty North Atlantic and rises in the warmer Pacific. p. 851

47.8 Greenhouse Gases, Global Warming Infrared 何謂溫室效應？ 當空氣中含有過多的溫室效應氣體 如 CO2, H2O, Ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarobons( CFC’s)時，照到地球表面的太陽輻射熱無法充分的散失，因而使地球表面的溫度逐漸升高的現象，稱為溫室效應。 地球表面輻射熱 Infrared light Fig. 47.22, p. 858

溫室效應的影響 濱海地區棲地面積減少。 溫度升高4 C (7 F) ，將使海平面上升0.6米(2英尺)。 沙漠範圍增加，內陸越來越乾燥。 局部區域的溫度升高，造成降雨量改變(及洪水)。 3. 熱浪及野火 部分地區乾旱造成糧食減產 暖濕的海岸地區造成傳染病流行 水的爭奪戰

溫室效應的證據 1996年，發現北極冰帽下 200 m 處，溫度較 5 年前上 升 1 C 。 過去空氣中CO2含量和Temp變化的情形， Fig 47-18 。 最近幾年溫室效應氣體的增加情形 。

Humans Are Altering the Carbon Cycle Each year we withdraw 4 to 5 gigatons of fossil fuel from environmental reservoirs; and put 6 gigatons more carbon into the air than can be recycled to ocean reservoirs Excess CO2 entering the atmosphere may be a factor in global climate change

47.8 Greenhouse Gases, Global Warming Greenhouse effect Radiant energy from the sun is absorbed by Earth’s surface and radiated back as heat Gases in the upper atmosphere trap heat like a greenhouse, and radiate it back to Earth Greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide, water, nitrous oxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Global Warming Global warming Scientists expect far-reaching effects A long-term increase in temperature near Earth’s surface, currently about 1.8°C (3.2°F) per century Scientists expect far-reaching effects Melting glaciers and rising sea levels Altered global precipitation patterns, droughts and flooding, more intense hurricanes

Changes in Global Mean Temperatures

The Shrinking Antarctic Ice Shelf

全球逐漸變暗 2004/05/20 國立台灣大學全球變遷研究中心(劉彥蘭譯) 全球逐漸變暗 2004/05/20 國立台灣大學全球變遷研究中心(劉彥蘭譯) 科學界研究發現：地球光線較從前為暗，這種現象稱之為全 球漸暗(global dimming)現象。 澳洲坎培拉大學的氣候學家Michael Roderick研究指出： 受到厚雲及日漸嚴重的空氣污染影響，使得全球地表接收陽 光輻射量比50年以前減少15％。此現象科學家稱之為全球漸 暗現象，亦即著名的日光減弱(solar dimming)。因為雲與空 氣污染會攔阻部分太陽熱能，如同地球坐落在洋傘下，由於 可濾到一部分熱能，因而地表溫度降低，因此部分的日光減 弱可以抵銷溫室效應。         NASA‘s研究員James Hansen亦提出一說法： 日光減弱效應對全球暖化的貢獻約為溫室氣體的二分之一。

47.9 Nitrogen Cycle 氮是蛋白質和核酸組成的必要元素。 大氣 80﹪是氮氣，但是地殼上的含 量卻有限。 在植物生長所需的營養物當中，氮 元素是最缺乏的。

N2 Cycle N2 fixing: N2 is unusable, NH3 and NO3- is usable artificial N2 fixing: 4000C, 200 atm biological N2 fixing: N2  -NH2 the meaning of biological N2 fixing: low energy demand ammonification 銨化作用 -NH2 放射線菌,真菌 NH3

Nitrification 硝化作用: NH4+ nitrosomonas NO2- NO2- 硝化細菌 NO3- Antinitrification(denitrification)反硝化作用: NO3- pseudomonas N2 NO NO2 NO3- NO2- NH 3 (NH4+)

NH2-COOH Ｎ2 NH3 NO2- NO3-

Human Impact on the Nitrogen Cycle 環境污染的影響 空氣污染物，包括氮的氧化物，會使土壤變酸。 氮肥過度使用，不僅成本大，並且ion exchange會造成鈣鎂離子隨土壤流失。 高山多氮生長快，其他養分不足，葉黃化、易脫落。光合作用降低。 容易得病害。 輪耕(小麥和豆科植物) Ca和Mg流失慘重(ion exchange) Dead and dying spruce trees in Smoky Mountain National Park.

47.10 Sedimentary Cycle Phosphorus Cycle From land to sediments at bottom of the sea then back to land Earth’s Crust 地殼 Largest reservoir of phosphorus 陸地 海洋 植物 動物 分解者

DISSOLVED IN OCEAN WATER DISSOLVED IN SOILWATER, LAKES, RIVERS mining FERTILIZER 肥料 excretion GUANO 鳥糞石 agriculture weathering uptake by autotrophs uptake by autotrophs MARINE FOOD WEBS DISSOLVED IN OCEAN WATER weathering DISSOLVED IN SOILWATER, LAKES, RIVERS LAND FOOD WEBS death, decomposition death, decomposition sedimentation setting out leaching, runoff uplifting over geolgic time ROCKS MARINE SEDIMENTS Most phosphorus moves in the form of phosphate ions (PO43-)

Eutrophication 優養化 農業使用肥料，造成磷酸鹽大量流入水生態系中。 Dense algae blooms 任何使營養物進入生態系之作用，均稱為優養化