Research in TEFL: A Qualitative Perspective (英語教學研究 ─ 質的觀點) By David S. D. Tseng, Ph. D. Department of Foreign Languages and Literature Asia University at National Chung-Cheng University 96.11.25. (Tuesday) 01:30-3:00pm 2018/11/12

What is qualitative research? Qualitative research is a study of human actors in natural settings, in the context of their ordinary, everyday world; It seeks to understand the meanings and significance of these actions from the perspective of those involved; It usually focuses on a small number of individuals, groups or settings; It employs a range of methods in order to establish different perspectives on the relevant issues; It bases its analysis on a wide range of features; It only uses quantification where this is appropriate for specific purposes and as part of a broader approach. (Richards, 2003: 10) 2018/11/12

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Qualitative research involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials – case study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts – that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals’ lives…. (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994:2) 2018/11/12

7) Conversation Analysis Seven Traditions (Richards, Keith. 2003. Qualitative Inquiry in TESOL. New York: Palgrave Macmillan) 1) Ethnography 2) Grounded Theory 3) Phenomenology 4) Case Study 5) Life History 6) Action Research 7) Conversation Analysis 2018/11/12

III. Major Research Methods Marshall, C. & G. B. Rossman (1989) III. Major Research Methods Marshall, C. & G. B. Rossman (1989). Designing Qualitative Research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., pp.79-105. Primary Data Collection Techniques: Participant Observation In-depth Interviewing Supplemental Data Collection Techniques: Questionnaires and Surveys Films, Photographs, and Videotapes Projective Techniques and Psychological Testing Proxemics Kinesics Street Ethnography Ethnographic Interviewing Elite Interviewing Historical Analysis Life History Content Analysis Unobtrusive Measures Artifacts 2018/11/12

Approaches and Procedures in Classroom Research (Allwright and Bailey, 1991: 35-75) Theory-first (driven) Approach Data-first (driven) Approach Combined Approaches 1. Experimental Studies 2. Naturalistic Inquiry 3. Action Research 4. Combined Approaches (Naturalistic + Experimental/ Product-Process + Observational) 5. Sociolinguistic Approach (Hymes’ SPEAKING Model) Procedures Having a general (or specific) problem in mind Modifying (Refining/reformulating) it progressively Collecting data needed via observation, interview, experiments, etc. Looking at the most visible things (the easiest to observe, record, count) Analyzing the data in pre-determined categories Preparing the results Presenting the results Writing the results up 2018/11/12

Qualitative and Quantitative Procedures in Data Collection and Analysis (Allwright and Bailey 1991: 66) Quantitative data collection/quantitative analytic procedures: Computing statistical comparisons of learners’ test scores to see if there are any significant differences between groups Quantitative data collection/qualitative analytic procedures: Judging numeric data qualitatively, e.g., evaluating English test scores to determine acceptable levels of proficiency Qualitative data collection/quantitative analytic procedures: Tabulating the observed frequency of occurrence of certain linguistic structures in transcripts of classroom interaction Qualitative data collection/qualitative analytic procedures: Summarizing written field notes to yield prose profiles of various teachers in an observational study 2018/11/12

Interview Procedures (James P. Spradley, 1979 Interview Procedures (James P. Spradley, 1979. The Ethnographic Interview. NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston) Step 1: Locating an informant Step 2:Interviewing an informant Step 3: Making an ethnographic record Step 4: Asking descriptive questions Step 5: Analyzing ethnographic interviews Step 6: Making a domain analysis Step 7: Asking structural questions Step 8: Making a taxonomic analysis Step 9: Asking contrast questions Step 10: Making a componential analysis Step 11: Discovering cultural themes Step 12: Writing an ethnography 2018/11/12

Observation Procedures (James P. Spradley. 1980 Observation Procedures (James P. Spradley. 1980. Participant Observation. NY: Holt, Rihehart, and Winston) Step 1: Locating a social situation Step 2: Doing participant observation Step 3: Making an ethnographic record Step 4: Making descriptive observations Step 5: Making a domain analysis Step 6: Making focused observations Step 7: Making a taxonomic analysis Step 8: Making selected observations Step 9: Making a componential analysis Step 10: Discovering cultural themes Step 11: Taking a cultural inventory Step 12: Writing an ethnography 2018/11/12

IV. Analytical Procedures 1) Getting Started 2) Data Collecting (Getting the Entry, Participant Observation, Interviewing, Audio-/Video-Taping, Artifact Searching, Theoretical Sampling) 3) Developing a Coding Scheme/Framework 4) Setting up a System of Coding Categories (Open, Axial, and Selective) 5) Coding (Bracketing, Epoching, Ideating, Tabulating and Tallying) 6) Drawing the Whole Picture 7) Making a Conclusion 8) Presenting the Results 9) Writing up the Results 2018/11/12

Data Analysis Procedures Step 1: Listening to the recordings repeatedly Step 2: Considering what to analyze Step 3: Picking up the prominent features Step 4: Sketching the lesson structures Step 5: Transcribing the recordings into verbatim transcripts Step 6: Highlighting the relevant linguistic features Step 7: Coding the selected data into the pre-determined categories Step 8: Calculating the inter-raters’ reliability Step 9: Coding the data holistically Step 10: Tabulating and counting the frequency of occurrence of each pattern Step 11: Analyzing the data qualitatively or quantitatively. Step 12: Presenting the results Step 13: Writing up the research 2018/11/12

Theoretical Triangulation Data Triangulation Multiple Triangulation in Data Analysis (Denzin, 1970:472; van Lier, 1988:13) Theoretical Triangulation Data Triangulation Investigator Triangulation Methodological Triangulation 2018/11/12

Analyzing Videotaped Materials (van Lier, 1988:65) Stage I: Global Viewing Stage II: Choice of Specific Occasions of Interest for More Detailed Analysis Stage III: Specification of Differences in the Transition or Junctures, with Specific Attention Paid to Non- verbal Contextualization Cues Stage IV: Detailed Description of the Participation Structures Stage V: Construction of a Model Showing the Principles of Social Organization Underlying the Surface Form of Communication Behavior in Interaction Stage VI: Establishing the Generalizability of the Structures Analyzed 2018/11/12

V. Qualitative Inquiry in TEFL in the decade (1996-2008): Some NCUE Master’s Theses 蔡雅琴(1996) Mandarin as a Lingua Franca in EFL Classrooms: Experienced and Inexperienced Teachers’ Language Regulation in Senior High School (英文教室教師使用中文的研究) 林惠玉(1996) Questioning Strategies Used by Experienced and Less Experienced EFL Teachers (國中英語教師詢問策略之研究) 魏延斌(1996) A Case Study of the Instructional Strategies in EFL Classrooms (國中英語教師教學策略之個案研究)  陳玉齡(1997) Structure of Topic in Senior High School EFL Classrooms: A Case Study (高中英語教師的話題結構研究) 呂采芬(1997) Methodological Transitioning in Junior High School EFL Classrooms: A Case Study (國中英語教師的教法轉換研究) 2018/11/12

盧慧娜(1998)Teacher Speech Elaboration in Junior High School EFL Classrooms: A Case Study (國中英語教師語言擴增現象的研究) 谷湘琴(1998)Teacher Repetition in Junior High School EFL Classrooms: A Case Study (國中英語教師語言重複現象得研究) 吳如雅(1998)Floor Management in Junior High School EFL Classrooms: A Case Study (國中英語教師處理說話權的研究) 賴盈志(1999)Teacher Code-Switching in Senior High School EFL Classrooms: A Case Study (高中英文教師語碼互換之研究) 洪淑琪(1999)A Case Study of College Freshmen’s Responses to Teacher and Peer Feedback in English Compositions (大一學生對教師與同儕評改英文作文意見之反應分析) 何維綺(2001)A Study on Teacher Vocabulary Explanation in Vocational Senior High School EFL Classrooms (高職英文教師解釋生字之研究) 2018/11/12

楊純真(2003)A Study of the Effects of Guided Reading and Writing Directions on Taiwanese Senior High School Students’ English Writing (閱讀與寫作指引對台灣高中生英文寫作的影響) 張郁婕(2003)A Study of Senior High School EFL Teachers’ Beliefs, Assumptions, and Knowledge During Their Methodological Decision-Making Process(高中英文教師教法決策信念之研究) 鍾媄嫃(2003)A Study of the Senior High School EFL Teachers’ Beliefs in Materials Compilation, Selection and Use (高中英文教師對教材選編用之信念研究) 劉菁菁(2004)A Study of Teachers’ Beliefs and Strategies Used in Coping With Students’ Expectations in Four-Year Technological Colleges (四技通識英文教師信念與處理學生期望之策略運用的研究) 賴怡君(2004)A Study of College English Teachers’ Beliefs in Writing Instruction (大學英文教師作文教學信念之研究) 2018/11/12

葉瑪思(Yilmaz Keskin)(2004)An Analysis of the English and Turkish Lexical and Grammatical Errors Made By Chinese College Students in Taiwan (台灣大學生英文與土耳其文語詞與文法錯誤之分析)  陳秀玲(2005)A Study of Junior High School English Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in Vocabulary Instruction(國中英語教師單字教學信念與實務之研究) 吳姿燕(2005)A Study of Elementary School English Teachers’ Beginnings of Their English Classes. (國小英語教師開始上課行為之研究) 陳怡曄(2005)Homework in Junior High School EFL Classrooms. (國中英語教室家庭指定作業之研究)  張紜榛(2005)A Study of Junior High School English Teachers’ Roles and Their Coping Strategies (國中英語教師角色及應變策略之研究) 謝菁梅(2005)A Study of Junior High School English Teachers’ Beliefs and Practices in Grammar Instruction (國中英語教師文法教學信念與實務之研究) 廖怡芬(2006)A case study of university freshmen’s compare/contrast writing process strategies and genre-specific strategies. (大一學生比較/對比文寫作過程策略與文體寫作策略之個案研究) 2018/11/12

劉淑萍(2006)A case study of college English-major freshmen’s narrative writing strategies. (大學英語系一年級學生敘述文寫作策略之個案研究) 李麗玲(2008)Dyadic collaborative writing in a senior high school EFL classroom: A case study. (高中英文作文教室雙人同儕互動與協同寫作之研究). 王恩雅(2008) Argumentative writing strategies and writing process strategies used by EFL college freshmen and juniors: A case study(大一及大三學生英文議論文體寫作策略及寫作過程策略之個案研究) 2018/11/12

VI. What Findings Did We Get from Them? Language Use in Class Teaching and Learning Strategies Content of Teacher Talk Teacher Talk Registers Teacher Speech Modifications Floor Management Reading and Writing Concerns Teacher’s Roles and Role Shift Teacher Beliefs, Assumptions and Knowledge (BAKs) 2018/11/12

Retrospection A) Issues to Ponder: --Data-Driven or Theory-Driven? --The Transformation of the Data Collected --Getting Access to the Subjects --Getting the Permission to Work with --Observer’s Paradox --Technical Failure --Irrecoverability of the Classroom Events --Getting Entry to the Research Sites --Subjectivity --Validity --Incomplete Puzzles Scrambled B) Possible Solutions? 2018/11/12

VII. Problems Encountered Time-Consuming Energy-Consuming Hard to find research settings Difficult to find research subjects Difficult to set up categories Few research results Hard to make Generalizations Insufficient cases studied Insufficient patience 2018/11/12

VIII. Possible Solutions to the Problems Encountered Spare extra time for doing qualitative research. Do some more exercises to strengthen your muscles for conducting qualitative research. Try to contact whatever agencies and whoever possible to get the entry permit. Ask those who are able to help for building the social network in order to target the subjects in the field site. Construct the working categories first by consulting the relevant literature, then by previewing the data, and finally asking for help from the experienced researchers. Encourage as many researchers as possible to conduct their qualitative research and publish their results in public. Organize relevant academic communities for the related fields of study, especially for the qualitative research groups. 2018/11/12

IX. Conclusion Doing qualitative research is easy. Doing qualitative research is fun. Doing qualitative research is promising. Doing qualitative research is rewarding. Let’s do it altogether! Let’s combine teacher research, classroom research and action research. 2018/11/12

Action Research Teacher Research Classroom Research Teacher’s Action Research in the Classroom Teacher Research Classroom Research 2018/11/12 Intersection of Classroom Research, Teacher Research and Action Research

參考書目 甲、中文部份 王文科（民83a）《教育研究法》，台北：五南。 王文科（民83b）《質的教育研究法》，第二版，台北：五南。 吳芝儀、李奉儒（譯）（民84）《質的評鑑與研究》（Michael Quinn Patton 原著（1980;1990）Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods），Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. 吳明清（民80）《教育研究：基本觀念與方法的分析》，台北：五南。  段家鋒、孫正豐、張世賢（主編）（民84）《論文寫作研究》，台北：三民。 高敬文（民77）《「質的研究派典」之理論分析與實際運用》，屏東：東益。 高敬文（民85）《質化研究方法論》，台北：師大書苑。 陳向明(2002)，《教師如何作質的研究》，台北:洪葉文化事業有限公司。 2018/11/12

陳伯璋（民79）《教育研究方法的新取向—質的研究方法》，台北：南宏。 黃瑞琴（民80）《質的教育研究方法》，台北：心理。 歐用生（民78）《質的研究》，台北：師大書苑。 顧瑜君 (譯) (1998)，《質性研究寫作》。Harry F. Wolcott原著(1990)，Writing up Qualitative Research. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.)台北：五南。 臺灣省立屏東師範學院編（民75）《質的探討在教育研究上的應用學術研討會論文集》。屏東巿：屏東師院。 2018/11/12

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Spradley, James P. (1979). The ethnographic interview Spradley, James P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. _____. (1980). Participant observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 2018/11/12