Chapter 15 競爭優勢的侵略要素 Global Marketing Warren J. Keegan Mark C. Green

產業分析：影響競爭的力量 產業是指生產的產品互相具有高度替代性的一群公司 產業中有五種影響競爭的力量 In any industry, competition works to drive down the rate of return on invested capital toward the rate that would be earned in the economist’s “perfectly competitive” industry. Rates of return that are greater than this so-called competitive rate will stimulate an inflow of capital either from new entrants or from existing competitors making additional investment. Rates of return below this competitive rate will result in withdrawal from the industry and a decline in the levels of activity and competition. According to Michael E. Porter of Harvard University, a leading theorist of competitive strategy, there are five forces influencing competition in an industry: the threat of new entrants, the threat of substitute products or services, the bargaining power of buyers, the bargaining power of suppliers, and the competitive rivalry among current members of the industry.

新進入者的威脅 新市場進入者將使同類型產品價格下降、利潤減少 有八種進入障礙，能限制產業新進入者造成的威脅 New entrants to an industry bring new capacity, a desire to gain market share and position, and, quite often, new approaches to serving customer needs. The decision to become a new entrant in an industry is often accompanied by a major commitment of resources. New players mean prices will be pushed downward and margins squeezed, resulting in reduced industry profitability in the long run. Porter describes eight major sources of barriers to entry, the presence or absence of which determines the extent of threat of new industry entrants. These barriers will be discussed in the next two slides

進入障礙 規模經濟 產品差異化 資金需求 轉換成本 指的是每單位的產品成本隨著產量的增加而下降 產品認知上的特性 公司對資金的需求，不限於購買製造設備，有些是為了研發、財務管理、廣告支出、商店銷售與服務、顧客信用與存貨（營運資金）所需 轉換成本 轉換供應商和產品所產生的一次成本

進入障礙（續） 配銷通路 政府政策 與規模經濟無關的成本優勢 競爭者的回應 如果配銷通路已滿且無法使用，新進入者的配銷成本就會因為必須另外創造新配銷通路而增加 政府政策 某些時候，政府確實限制競爭者進入特定產業 與規模經濟無關的成本優勢 原物料的取得、大量且低廉的勞工、有利的位置、政府的補助等 競爭者的回應 如果新進入者預期競爭者將強烈回應，對於估計的進入報酬就會有所調整 Since Porter first introduced his theory regarding the barriers to entry the competitive environment has changed. The digital revolution appears to have altered the entry barriers in many industries. First and foremost, technology has lowered the cost for new entrants. For example, Barnes & Noble watched an entrepreneurial upstart, Amazon.com, storm the barriers protecting traditional “brick-and-mortar” booksellers. Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos identified and exploited a glaring inefficiency in book distribution: Bookstores ship unsold copies of books back to publishers to be shredded and turned into pulp. Amazon’s centralized operations and increasingly personalized online service enable customers to select from millions of different titles at discount prices and have them delivered to their homes within days. For a growing number of book-buying consumers, Amazon.com eclipses the value proposition of local bookstores that offer “only” a few thousand titles and gourmet coffee bars. Chapter 17 will offer a full discussion on the digital revolution.

替代品的威脅 替代品的取得限制了價格市場領導者的收費 高價位商品導致購買者轉而尋求替代品 The availability of substitute products places limits on the prices market leaders can charge in an industry; high prices may induce buyers to switch to the substitute. Once again, the digital revolution is dramatically altering industry structures. In addition to lowering entry barriers, the digital era means that certain types of products can be converted to bits and distributed in pure digital form. For example, the development of the MP3 file format for music was accompanied by the increased popularity of peer-to-peer (p-to-p) file swapping among music fans.

購買者的議價能力 產業顧客的最終目標在於支付可能的最低價格 購買者最有興趣的是盡可能壓低供應商的獲利能力，當 購買者的購買數量大到足以影響供應者的生存 供應商的產品是一般商品 產品或勞務價格占購買者的成本很重比例時 購買者達成向後整合的意願和能力 Because it purchases massive quantities of goods for resale, Wal-Mart is in a position to dictate terms to any vendor wishing to distribute its products at the retail giant’s stores. This includes the recorded music industry; Wal-Mart accounts for approximately 10 percent of the market for CD sales. Wal-Mart refuses to stock CDs stickered with parental advisories for explicit lyrics or violent imagery. Artists who want their recordings available at Wal-Mart have the option of altering lyrics and song titles or deleting offending tracks. Likewise, artists are sometimes asked to change album cover art if Wal-Mart deems it offensive.

－沃爾瑪的發言人對於外界指責「他們利用財務力量去改變藝術創作」的回應 購買者的議價能力（續） 「我們不反對也不批評。任何人都有權利唱自己想唱的、寫自己想寫的、說自己想說的，但我們有權利決定銷售哪些產品。」 －沃爾瑪的發言人對於外界指責「他們利用財務力量去改變藝術創作」的回應

供應商的議價能力 如果供應商有能力影響該產業，他們就可以提高價格，進而影響公司購買者的獲利率 供應商能力強弱受到幾個因素影響： 供應商規模大，數量少 供應商的產品或勞務對使用公司而言非常重要，或具有高度差異性，或具有高額轉換成本 供應商產品不受替代產品的威脅 供應商自行發展產品品牌的意願和能力 Supplier power in an industry is the converse of buyer power. Microsoft and Intel are two excellent examples of companies with substantial supplier power. Because about 90 percent of the world’s nearly 600 million PCs use Microsoft’s operating systems and Intel’s microprocessors, the two companies enjoy a great deal of leverage relative to Dell, Compaq, and other computer manufacturers. In fact, it was precisely because Microsoft became so powerful that the U.S. government and the European Union launched separate antitrust investigations.

現有競爭者的對抗 現有公司之間的對抗代表企業內的公司會採取行動，以改進本身的地位和獲取利益 價格競爭 廣告戰 產品定位 差異化 Several factors can create intense rivalry. Once an industry becomes mature, firms focus on market share and how it can be gained at the expense of others. Second, industries characterized by high fixed costs are always under pressure to keep production at full capacity to cover the fixed costs. Once the industry accumulates excess capacity, the drive to fill capacity will push prices—and profitability— down. A third factor affecting rivalry is lack of differentiation or an absence of switching costs, which encourages buyers to treat the products or services as commodities and shop for the best prices. Again, there is downward pressure on prices and profitability. Fourth, firms with high strategic stakes in achieving success in an industry generally are destabilizing because they may be willing to accept below-average profit margins to establish themselves, hold position, or expand.

競爭優勢 當公司的獨特專長與該產業中成功的關鍵因素相結合時，該公司便具有競爭優勢 有兩種方法可以獲得競爭優勢 低成本策略 差異化產品策略 Any superior match between company competencies and customers needs permits the firm to outperform competitors. There are two basic ways to achieve competitive advantage. First, a firm can pursue a low-cost strategy that enables it to offer products at lower prices than competitors. Competitive advantage may also be gained by a strategy of differentiating products so that customers perceive unique benefits, often accompanied by a premium price. Note that both strategies have the same effect: They both contribute to the firm’s overall value proposition.

創造競爭優勢的一般性策略 成本領導 產品差異化 成本集中 集中差異化 In addition to the “five forces” model of industry competition, Michael Porter has developed a framework of so-called generic business strategies based on the two types or sources of competitive advantage. The relationship of these two sources with the scope of the target market served (narrow or broad) or product mix width (narrow or wide) yields four generic strategies: cost leadership, product differentiation, cost focus, and focused differentiation. Generic strategies aiming at the achievement of competitive advantage or superior marketing strategy demand that the firm make choices. The choices concern the type of competitive advantage it seeks to attain (based on cost or differentiation) and the market scope or product mix width within which competitive advantage will be attained.

以策略意圖創造競爭優勢 「很少有競爭優勢是長久的。維持現有的優勢與建立新的優勢不同，策略的本質在於要比競爭者模仿你的速度，更快速地建立明日的優勢。因此增強組織改善現有技巧和學習新技術的能力，是最值得追求的競爭優勢。」 －策略大師哈默爾和普哈拉 An alternative framework for understanding competitive advantage focuses on competitiveness as a function of the pace at which a company implants new advantages deep within its organization. This framework identifies strategic intent, growing out of ambition and obsession with winning, as the means for achieving competitive advantage. This approach is founded on the principles of W. E. Deming, who stressed that a company must commit itself to continuing improvement in order to be a winner in a competitive struggle.

以策略意圖創造競爭優勢（續） 建立多層優勢 尋找競爭者的弱點 改變競爭的規則 與競爭者合作 The book discusses the Komatsu/Caterpillar saga, and this is just one example of how global competitive battles are shaped by more than the pursuit of generic strategies. Many firms have gained competitive advantage by disadvantaging rivals through “competitive innovation.” Hamel and Prahalad define competitive innovation as “the art of containing competitive risks within manageable proportions” and identify four successful approaches utilized by Japanese competitors. These are: building layers of advantage, searching for loose bricks, changing the rules of engagement, and collaborating.

全球競爭與國家競爭優勢 全球競爭發生在公司擁有全球性的競爭觀點，而且想要在全世界市場中獲得最大的利潤時 全球競爭對產品生產者及勞務提供者會產生負面的衝擊，雖然創造消費者價值，但也可能摧毀工作機會及利潤

全球競爭與國家競爭優勢（續） According to Porter, the presence or absence of particular attributes in individual countries influences industry development, not just the ability of individual firms to create core competences and competitive advantage. Porter describes these attributes—factor conditions, demand conditions, related and supporting industries, and firm strategy, structure, and rivalry—in terms of a national “diamond” which is illustrated on this slide. The diamond shapes the environment in which firms compete. Activity in any one of the four points of the diamond impacts on all the others and vice versa. The following slides will discuss the various subsections of the model.

要素條件 人力資源：所有具有工作能力的人力資源總數，這些工作者具有的專業技術、工資水準、道德倫理水準 實體資源：土地、水、礦產及其他自然資源的可利用性、數量、品質與成本 知識資源：國內人口擁有科學性、技術性和市場相關知識的比率

要素條件（續） 資本資源：一國產業可使用資金的數量、成本和型態。一國的儲蓄率、利率、稅率和政府赤字均將影響此項資本資源因素 基礎建設資源：包括一個國家的銀行、醫療、運輸、通訊等系統和這些系統的使用性及成本

需求條件 本國需求的組成：決定公司如何知覺、解讀及反應購買者的需求 本國需求成長的規模和型態：龐大的本國需求可能是公司達成規模經濟和學習經驗的機會，尤其在面對熟悉或自在的市場時更是如此 The nature of home demand conditions for the firm’s or industry’s products and services is important because it determines the rate and nature of improvement and innovation by the firms in the nation. These are the factors that either train firms for world-class competition or that fail to adequately prepare them to compete in the global marketplace. Three characteristics of home demand are particularly important to creation of competitive advantage: the composition of home demand, the size and pattern of growth of home demand, rapid home market growth, and the means by which a nation’s home demand pulls the nation’s products and services into foreign markets.

需求條件（續） 本國市場快速成長：這是促使公司進行投資、採用新技術和建立大規模有效率設備的其中一個誘因 將本國產品和勞務導入外國市場的方式：本國人民和企業到海外時，是否仍有本國產品或勞務的需求

關聯性及支援性產業 當一個國家是某個國際競爭產業的母國時，往往能獲得其他關聯性和支援性產業的協助，這個國家就具有某種優勢

公司策略、組織架構及國內競爭對手 單一國家市場中的內部競爭，對國家競爭優勢的影響很大 如果少了明顯大規模的國內競爭，可能會造成國內公司的自滿，而最終在世界市場失去競爭力 管理風格、組織技巧與策略觀點的差異，對每個產業中互相競爭的公司也會造成競爭優勢或劣勢

公司策略、組織架構及國內競爭對手（續） 機會事件的發生不是公司或產業所能控制，並造成技術的不連續 政府可以產品或勞務的購買者，或是以政策制定者的角色，影響競爭優勢決定要素

當今競爭優勢的議題 今日的企業環境及市場穩定性受到以下因素影響 結果就是競爭力量的增強及加速 短暫的產品生命週期 短暫的產品設計週期 新技術 全球化 結果就是競爭力量的增強及加速 Dartmouth College professor Richard D’Aveni suggests that the Porter strategy frameworks fail to adequately address the dynamics of competition in the 1990s. In light of the information shared on this slide D’Aveni believes the goal of strategy has shifted from sustaining to disrupting advantages. The limitation of the Porter models, D’Aveni argues, is that they are static; that is, they provide a snapshot of competition at a given point in time. Acknowledging that Hamel and Prahalad broke new ground in recognizing that few advantages are sustainable, D’Aveni aims to build upon their work in order to shape “a truly dynamic approach to the creation and destruction of traditional advantages.” The next several slides will discuss his theory.

當今競爭優勢的議題（續） 超優勢競爭一詞描述一個動態的競爭世界，在這個世界中沒有任何一種行動或優勢可以永久持續 競爭是由成本與品質、即時性與專業知識、產業進入障礙和雄厚資本四個競爭領域所構成的一系列動態策略的交互作用 The only source of a truly sustainable competitive advantage is a company’s ability to manage its dynamic strategic interactions with competitors by means of frequent movements and counter movements that maintain a relative position of strength in each of the four arenas.

當今競爭優勢的議題（續） 公司為達成持續的優勢必須放棄一系列已經衰頹無法維持的過去優勢 行銷的角色應是改革創新和創造新市場 改革創新要從放棄老舊且過時的市場開始

當今競爭優勢的議題（續） 「創新的組織既不應花費時間，也不應投入資源防衛昨日；有系統的放棄昨日，才能將資源移轉供未來新世界使用。」 －彼得‧杜拉克

成本領導 基於公司的定位為產業中的低成本生產者 必須建立最具效率的設備 必須取得最大市場占有率，以便在產業中創造最低的單位成本 如果公司能樹立障礙，防止競爭者達到相同低成本的地位，成本領導是一項可持續的競爭優勢來源 Return

產品差異化 當公司的產品在市場中與其他競爭者差異很大，或被消費者認為是獨特的產品時，公司便享有差異化優勢 這是非常有效的策略，不但可以保衛市場地位，也可獲得平均水準以上的財務報酬，因為獨特的產品可以訂定較高的價格 Return

成本集中 公司的低成本定位能在特定目標市場中，提供比競爭者更低價的產品 這項策略的重點問題在於優勢的持續性 如果競爭者的目標市場是廣泛的顧客時，公司成本集中化的優勢便可維持 如果競爭者不能鎖定目標市場，公司的集中差異化優勢便可維持 Return

集中差異化 集中差異化可提供特定市場獨特的產品，並收取較高的價格 針對特定目標市場，了解其需求與願望來採取因應措施，將可創造更多的顧客價值 例子：高水準的音響設備 Return

建立多層優勢 如果公司有廣泛的優勢組合，競爭風險比較低 藉由多層優勢的建立，公司可確保成功 建立多層優勢的過程，顯示公司如何在價值鏈中移動，進而增強自身的競爭優勢 Return

尋找競爭者的弱點 利用競爭者的弱點，尤其是當競爭者集中力量於區隔市場或地理區域時 Return

改變競爭的規則 拒絕遵守產業領導者操控的產業規則 例子：全錄與佳能 全錄僱用大量的直接銷售人力，佳能卻選擇透過辦公室產品經銷商的配銷通路來進行銷售 全錄建立寬的影印機產品線，但是佳能卻建立標準化機器及零組件 全錄以租用機器來推銷其產品，佳能則是出售機器 Return

與競爭者合作 使用其他公司之前開發的專業知識 與競爭者合作的型態包括授權、合資或合夥 Return