Chapter 5 全球行銷之政治、法律與管制環境 Global Marketing Warren J. Keegan Mark C. Green

政治環境 政治文化提供個人和公司了解他們與政治體系的關係 政黨對主權移轉的態度、政治風險、稅賦、股權稀釋威脅與財產徵收 Global marketing activities take place within the political environment of governmental institutions, political parties, and organizations through which a country’s people and rulers exercise power. Each nation also has a political culture, which reflects the relative importance of the government and legal system and provides a context within which individuals and corporations understand their relationship to the political system. Any company doing business outside its home country should carefully study the political culture in the target country and analyze salient issues arising from the political environment. These include the governing party’s attitude toward sovereignty, political risk, taxes, the threat of equity dilution, and expropriation.

「政府最終的資源是權力，而我們不斷目睹此種國家權力受市場力量逼近而讓步。」 國家與主權 社會發展階段 貿易保護主義法律－未開發國家 自由貿易－先進國家 政治經濟制度 裙帶關係 市場和非市場 「政府最終的資源是權力，而我們不斷目睹此種國家權力受市場力量逼近而讓步。」 －經濟顧問Neal Soss As organizations do business in foreign countries they need to take into account the stage of economic development and the overall political and economic system. At earlier stages of development countries tend to have laws that will protect national industries and resources where as later stages of development there is a movement to encourage free trade. Also in lesser developed countries organizations should expect to see political leaders engage in the practice cronyism, rewarding friends and family with favors. The economic system is also important because a non-market economy will be controlled by the government and the organization will have less freedom. In the end there has been a noticeable trend where governments are willing to cede some of their sovereignty for the possibility of economic growth.

政治風險 政治風險泛指政治環境或政府政策改變，會負面影響公司營運的效果及效益之風險 一旦政治風險程度升高，國家吸引國外投資上會較為困難

政治風險的起因 理想與現實的緊張關係 主要發生在中低所得及低所得國家 印尼和經濟危機

政治風險的說明徵兆 經濟發展愈差的國家，政治風險也愈大 經濟提升不一定會增加風險

政治風險的說明徵兆（續） This slide illustrates how income can affect political risk in a country.

稅賦 政府課稅政策 公司稅賦 高稅額鼓勵許多企業致力於以現金或物品交易 許多公司藉由轉移所得降低稅賦 Governments rely on tax revenues to generate funds necessary for social services, the military, and other expenditures. Unfortunately, government taxation policies on the sale of goods and services frequently motivate for companies and individuals to profit by not paying taxes. In China, for example, most imports are subject to high duties, plus a 17 percent value-added tax. As a result, significant quantities of oil, cigarettes, photographic film, personal computers, and other products are smuggled into China. Corporate taxation is another issue. The high level of political risk currently evident in Russia can be attributed in part to excessively high taxes on business operations. High taxes encourage many enterprises to engage in cash or barter transactions that are off the books and sheltered from the eyes of tax authorities. This, in turn, has created a liquidity squeeze that prevents companies from paying wages to employees.

資產沒收 徵收意指政府處分外國企業或投資者的行動 應提供「即時、有效及足夠」的報償 如果並未提供任何補償，便稱為沒收充公

資產沒收（續） 國有化意指政府在特定產業中控制部分或全部企業 國際法認同國有化為合法的政府權力執行，但是要滿足 「公共目的」 「適當給付」

國際法 約束主權國家的法規和原則 國家間的爭端屬於國際法議題 聯合國的司法組織 世界法庭或國際司法法庭

普通法與民事法 以普通法為主的國家 爭議全賴當局以往的判決決定判例 美國、加拿大10個省份中的9個，與其他曾為英國殖民地的國家

回教法 很多中東國家的法律系統還是以回教法規為主 在回教法中，戒律是主導所有回教徒行為的規範 可蘭經－聖書 聖訓 記載穆罕默德生活、嘉言與實務 Any Westerner doing business in Malaysia in the Middle East should have, at minimum, a rudimentary understanding of Islamic law and its implications for commercial activities. Brewers, for example, must refrain from advertising beer on billboards or in local-language newspapers.

法律問題的迴避 尋求法律專家的協助 迴避衝突 確立司法管轄權 保護智慧財產權 避免行賄

司法管轄權 審判權指的是法庭所授予的權力，裁決某些國外發生的特定衝突，或是對外國人或團體行使該權力 企業的海外工作人員必須了解地主國法院的管轄範圍 在美國的外商公司職員，也必須認知地主國法院對該公司的商業行為有一定的管轄權

智慧財產權 全球行銷者必須確定在準備經營事業的國家登記專利與商標 專利－提供發明者在某特定期間所有的權利以製造、使用和銷售發明 商標－製造商的獨特標記、箴言、提示或象徵，以區別其他製造商所生產的產品 版權－建立寫作、錄音、表演或電影創作工作者的擁有權

違反智慧財產權 偽造－未經授權複製生產產品 仿冒－偽造或模仿稍異於知名品牌的產品名稱 盜版－非法盜用未經授權的出版品或版權作品

保護智慧財產權 國際保護工業財產權公約 專利合作條約 歐洲專利公約 巴黎公約 現有100多個國家遵行 促進締約國的多國專利登記，確保註冊後一年內均具他國申請登記優先權 專利合作條約 歐洲專利公約 International concern about intellectual property issues in the nineteenth century resulted in two important agreements. The first is the International Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property. Also known as the Paris Union or Paris Convention, the convention dates to 1883 and is now honored by nearly 100 countries. This treaty facilitates multi-country patent registrations by ensuring that, once a company files in a signatory country, it will be afforded a “right of priority” in other countries for 1 year from the date of the original filing. A U.S. company wishing to obtain foreign patent rights must apply to the Paris Union within 1 year of filing in the United States or risk a permanent loss of patent rights abroad. The Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) has 39 signatories, including Australia, Brazil, France, Germany, Japan, North Korea, South Korea, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the former Soviet Union, and the United States. The members constitute a union that provides certain technical services and cooperates in the filing, searching, and examination of patent applications in all member countries. The European Patent Office administers applications for the European Patent Convention, which is effective in the EU and Switzerland. An applicant can file a single patent application covering all of the convention states; the advantage is that the application will be subject to only one procedure of grant. Although national patent laws remain effective under this system, approved patents are effective in all member countries for a period of 20 years from the filing date.

反托拉斯法 設置目的在於反對企業經營限制、鼓勵企業競爭 由美國的Federal Trade Commisson、日本Fair Trade CommisSion，以及歐洲的European Commssion強制執行 美國1890年的休曼法禁止某種形式的公司經營限制，包括壟斷性定價、限制產量、市場分配，或是任何限制或避免競爭的形式；此法條適用於所有在美國境內經營的公司，包括外國籍的公司 Antitrust is taking on increasing importance in emerging country markets. For example, Colgate- Palmolive’s 1995 acquisition of Brazil’s Kolynos oral care company for $1 billion was subject to review by that country’s Administrative Council of Economic Defense (Cade). Rival Procter & Gamble instigated the review by complaining that the acquisition would give Colgate a 79 percent share of the market. Cade ruled that Colgate must either license the trademark to another company for 20 years or halt sales of Kolynos brand toothpaste in Brazil for 4 years; Colgate agreed to the latter. The Miller Brewing unit of Philip Morris also ran into antitrust problems in Brazil following its 1995 investment of $50 million in a 50/50 joint venture with Cia. Cervejaria Brahma SA. Cade ruled that the venture, which produced and distributed Miller Genuine Draft beer, deprived consumers of head-to-head competition between the two brewing companies. Cade also criticized Miller for choosing a market entry strategy that required a relatively low level of investment. Nelio Weiss, a consultant at Coopers & Lybrand’s Sao Paulo office, noted, “The message is that foreign companies shouldn’t assume that antitrust authorities will be passive.”

授權申請與商業機密 授權申請是指授權者允許被授權者使用其專利、商標、商業機密、技術或其他無形資產，但被授權者必須支付使用費等報償 在申請授權時，須注意下列事項： 分析該企業在授權面可提供的資產 如何估價 是否僅申請其生產權，或附加其使用權和行銷權

授權申請與商業機密（續） 商業機密是指具有商業價值且不被大眾知悉的祕密資訊或知識，其流程與步驟受嚴格保密 為避免機密曝光 最好事先與參與員工簽訂契約

衝突解決 訴訟 正式仲裁 1958年的聯合國公約 不透過法庭處理國際交易糾紛 仲裁前雙方都必須同意接受仲裁判決結果 國際仲裁中最重要的條約 The United States has more lawyers than any other country in the world and is arguably the most litigious nation on earth. In part, this is a reflection of the low-context nature of American culture and the spirit of confrontational competitiveness. Other factors can contribute to differing attitudes toward litigation. For example, in many European nations, class action lawsuits are not allowed. Also, European lawyers cannot undertake cases on a contingency fee basis. However, change is in the air, as Europe experiences a broad political shift away from the welfare state.

衝突解決（續）

管制環境 全球行銷者所面臨的管制，包括各種官方或非官方的機構的執法或指導方針 全球行銷活動受到許多國際經濟組織的影響 歐盟 世界貿易組織