Notes appear on slides 4, 9, 14, and 24.
管制與反托拉斯法 17 CHAPTER
C H A P T E R C H E C K L I S T 學習本章後,您將能: 解釋管制自然獨占與寡占的效果 描述美國的反托拉斯法 1 2
17.1 管制 管制 包含定價、產品標準與加入產業的規定,並由政府機構執行這些規定,以影響經濟行為 Get your students to go to Federal Register Web site, located at www.archives.gov/federal_register/the_federal_register/indexes.html. They (and you) will be amazed at the volume and detail of regulatory activity, almost all of which has an economic dimension and impact. There is no free lunch in regulating firms and industries that embody market power. Make the issue of industry regulation intriguing for the students by emphasizing the following countervailing opportunity costs that arise in regulating the firms in those industries that are creating a market failure.
17.1 管制 管制的經濟理論 有關管制的兩大經濟理論為: 公共利益理論 擄獲理論
公共利益理論 主張管制的目的在追求資源的效率使用 17.1 管制 公共利益理論 公共利益理論 主張管制的目的在追求資源的效率使用 擄獲理論 擄獲理論 認為受管制的廠商擄獲了管制者,而獲取獨占 利潤
自然獨占 17.1 管制 自然獨占 定義為單一廠商能以較低的價格滿足市場的需 求 (見第十四章) 自然獨占 定義為單一廠商能以較低的價格滿足市場的需 求 (見第十四章) Emphasize the tension between the potential for efficiency in production inherent with a natural monopoly and the inefficiency potential from the firm exercising its inherent market power. Be sure the students understand that economies of scale or scope enable the unregulated natural monopoly to provide products and services at the lowest possible cost, but the lack of competition also enables the firm to increase producer surplus at the expense of consumer surplus and creates a significant deadweight loss to society.
公共利益的管制或私人利益的管制 17.1 管制 邊際成本定價法則 根據公共利益理論,管制達成資源的效率使用,邊際成本 等於邊際利益,亦等於價格。 邊際成本定價法則 訂定價格等於邊際成本,受管制的產業生產效率數量 圖17.1 說明邊際成本定價法則
17.1 管制 1. 訂定價格等於 $10 的邊際成本 2. 在此價格下,市場達成效率數量 (800 萬戶) 價格與成本 ($/戶) 1. 訂定價格等於 $10 的邊際成本 消費者剩餘 2. 在此價格下,市場達成效率數量 (800 萬戶) 損失 3. 消費者剩餘極大化,如綠色三角形所示 價格=MC 效率數量 4. 廠商在每一訂戶遭受的損失,如紅色箭頭所示 數量 (百萬戶)
17.1 管制 平均成本定價法則 自然獨占廠商若要彌補其總成本,則價格必須等於平均 總成本,此管制稱為平均成本定價法則 自然獨占廠商若要彌補其總成本,則價格必須等於平均 總成本,此管制稱為平均成本定價法則 圖17.2 自然獨占:平均成本定價法則
17.1 管制 1. 價格等於平均總成本 $15/戶 2. 在此價格下,廠商提供 600 萬戶的服務,低於效率數量 價格與成本 ($/戶) 1. 價格等於平均總成本 $15/戶 消費者剩餘 2. 在此價格下,廠商提供 600 萬戶的服務,低於效率數量 To help present the differences between marginal cost pricing and average cost pricing, draw matching graphs side-by-side. Show students the prices that will be allowed by regulators. Ask students which regulation is “better.” Be sure to show your students that marginal cost pricing generates an economic loss even though output is at the competitive level. 3. 消費者剩餘萎縮至較小的綠色三角形 價格=ATC 效率數量 數量 (百萬戶)
17.1 管制 4. 無謂損失如灰色三角行所示 價格與成本 ($/戶) 消費者剩餘 生產者剩餘 無謂損失 價格=ATC 效率數量 數量 (百萬戶)
17.1 管制 報酬率管制 報酬率管制 允許受管制的廠商訂定高於平均成本的價格, 而賺取特定目標的投資報酬率。 報酬率管制 允許受管制的廠商訂定高於平均成本的價格, 而賺取特定目標的投資報酬率。 受管制的廠商可能使其成本膨脹,將支出浪費在與生產無直接相關的活動上
17.1 管制 價格上限管制 價格上限管制 明訂廠商可以訂定的最高價格,可形成廠 商控制成本的誘因 價格上限管制 明訂廠商可以訂定的最高價格,可形成廠 商控制成本的誘因 價格上限管制可搭配 盈餘管制,要求廠商在利潤高於特定目標水準時,必須回饋消費者。 圖17.3 自然獨占:價格上限管制
17.1 管制 1. 未受管制下,廠商在 MC = MR ,價格等於 $20 /戶,數量等於 400 萬戶時達成利潤極大化 價格與成本 ($/戶/月) 1. 未受管制下,廠商在 MC = MR ,價格等於 $20 /戶,數量等於 400 萬戶時達成利潤極大化 利潤極大化的結果 價格上限的結果 2. 價格上限設定為 $15 /戶 價格上限 3. 價格上限結果為需求曲線與價格上線點的交點 價格上限導致價格下跌數量增加 4. 價格上限導致價格下跌與數量增加 數量 (百萬戶)
寡占管制 17.1 管制 廠商有形成卡特爾的誘因 卡特爾在美國合法 根據公共利益理論,寡占管制將確保完全競爭市場的結 果。若根據擄獲理論,則管制將使生產者賺取最大利潤 圖17.4 寡占勾結
17.1 管制 1. 公共利益管制將達成效率競爭的結果:價格等於 $20 /次,數量等於 300 次/週 價格與成本 ($/次) 生產者利益管制 2. 生產者利益管制將限制產量為 200 次/週,此時產量的邊際收入 MR 等於產業的邊際成本 MC,而價格等於 $30 /次 公共利益管制 數量 (百萬戶)
17.2 反托拉斯法 管制並禁止特定的市場行為,例如獨占或獨買的行為 第一條反托拉斯法案:Sherman 法案,於1890 年通過 1914 年 Clayton 法案補充了 Sherman 法案 A large percentage of students read the Clayton Act as always prohibiting the activities listed, such as price discrimination or exclusive deals. Ask your students why airlines and movie theaters can price discriminate even though it is outlawed by the Clayton Act. Ask them why Coke and McDonald’s are allowed to have an exclusive deal so that only Coke products can be purchased at McDonald’s while Pepsi and KFC have similar exclusive deal. The objective is to force the students to understand that the business practices mentioned in the Clayton Act are illegal only if they substantially lessen competition or create monopoly. You can state this qualifying phrase as often as you like but real-life, specific examples are necessary to hammer the point home!
美國對微軟的反托拉斯訴訟 17.2 反托拉斯法 美國司法部與幾個州政府共同控訴微軟公司違反了反托拉 斯法,理由包括: 美國司法部與幾個州政府共同控訴微軟公司違反了反托拉 斯法,理由包括: 在個人電腦的操作系統市場擁有獨占勢力 利用掠奪式定價與搭售協議,獨占網路瀏覽軟體市場 利用其他反競爭的行為,強固以上兩市場的獨占勢力 Some students are familiar with the government’s case against Microsoft or, if not with the details, with the fact that the government had filed suit. When you discuss this case, be sure to point out that many expert witnesses were called at Microsoft’s trial. And, of course, each side brought its own economists…some of whom were paid over $1,000 an hour! More seriously, you can emphasize the tension between combining formerly separate goods into a product as a monopolizing action (tying agreements) and combining goods as a form of technological advancement to enhance consumer surplus (product innovation). The Microsoft defense to antitrust charges alluded to the inevitable combining of web browsers into computer operating system software. Microsoft could be truly enhancing its product but it also could be using its market power in one market to capture market power in another, more competitive market. If students are not sympathetic to Microsoft’s argument, ask them if when they buy a car, they also expect to get tires installed by the manufacturer. Challenge them about this point—aren’t there independent tire companies? Why is the tire tied to purchase of the automobile? If students object that “you need a tire for the car to run,” quickly ask them if a radio should be tied to the purchase of the car? Why shouldn’t the purchase of a radio be an independent decision? You don’t need to take sides with this discussion. Just point out to your students that arguments aren’t always as clear cut as they might seem initially.
17.2 反托拉斯法 微軟的回應 微軟對以上控訴做出回應 微軟認為視窗系統仍然面對許多競爭,如Mac OS 其所以主宰市場是因它是最佳的產品 結合視窗與 IE ,可以提供給消費者更有價值的完 整產品,而非搭售 瀏覽器與作業系統為一個產品
17.2 反托拉斯法 訴訟結果 法院認為微軟違反了反托拉斯法,並且判決微軟必須分 割成為兩家公司: 操作系統公司 應用軟體公司 法院認為微軟違反了反托拉斯法,並且判決微軟必須分 割成為兩家公司: 操作系統公司 應用軟體公司 但最後微軟上訴成功 最終的判決是微軟必須公開操作系統的運作方式,其他 軟體設計公司才能有效與微軟競爭