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英汉语辞格形式的作用和 认知意义
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1 前言 作为一门艺术,英语中的修辞(Rhetoric)源于希腊语(rhetorike),意思是“遣词华丽而精湛的演讲艺术”。讲演术或修辞术是古希腊的三大基础学术(含语法和逻辑在内)之一。随着社会的发展,语言和文学的发展步伐也不断加快,因此,修辞的含义也就更丰富了。除了“讲演艺术”以外,它还包括了作品的结构、风格、措辞、韵律等等。在现代英语里,修辞的一般含义是“生动地组合词语之技巧”,甚至有人干脆说成是“写作技巧”。其中有不少修辞方法使用极为频繁,并形成了固定的形式,因而被称为修辞格(figures of speech),即为了追求某一特殊的语言效果而设计的与普通的词句相比在结构和含义上都不相同但又具有比较固定的格式的比较规范的语言表达方法,如比喻和夸张等等。我认为:修辞就是优化措辞(perfection of wording),达到交际的最佳效果。
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修辞对语言的表达效果具有独特的作用。所以,其重要性不亚于语法和逻辑:语法是对语言的结构规则而言的;逻辑是对思维的形式及其规律而言的;修辞是对语言表达的质量而言。因此,对于语言学生而言,了解和掌握英语修辞方法(或修辞格)有助于完善自己的英语语言素质、培养自己的英语表达能力、提高自己的英语口语和笔语水平、改善自己的英语思维方法和表达方式从而达到最佳的语言表达效果、实现语言交际的最终目的。
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2 英汉修辞的差异性 英语和汉语都是历史悠久的语种,因而具有丰富的词汇和修辞手法。但是二者之间差异很大。而这些差异恰好对语言表达的效果和语言交际的目标的实现在文字形式和语音方面有着不同的影响方式。首先,从语言及文字形式方面看,英语属于印欧语系,所用的是拼音文字形式;而汉语属于汉藏语系,所用的文字形式是在象形文字基础上发展起来的。其次,从发音及其意义的角度看,汉语是一种声调语言,其严谨的四声系统直接决定着每一个字词的意义;而英语是重音语言,重音在词句中对意义的确定起着决定性的作用。再次,由于文化和社会制度的不同,这两种语言在修辞上也大有不同之处。比如,由于漫长的封建社会给中国留下了特别尊敬长者的传统,所以与“比喻”等修辞手法相比“讽刺”和“幽默”出现得很少;但是这两种手法在英语中却是极为重要的。又如,处于不同文化背景的人在进行比喻时所用的喻体是不大相同的:在英语中不难听到表示羡慕的 You are a lucky dog 之类的句子,但是汉语里几乎没有人会在类似情况下用“狗”来赞美对方。
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3 英汉辞格的形式、作用及其意义分析 英汉修辞虽有差异,但辞格的共同点更多。修辞格(Figures of Speech)到底有多少?阿瑟.翟格尔(Arthur Zeiger)1978年编写的《英语百科全书》中归纳出了77种;日本早稻田大学英文教授增田藤之助所著的《英语修辞学讲义》共收50种;中国著名学者陈望道所著并于1984年在上海外语教育出版社出版的《修辞学发凡》共收38种。其实如果认真细致地总结,可能找到一百多种修辞格甚至上千种。本文根据学生在学习英语修辞格时片面重视其形式、忽视其作用和意义的问题,收集和利用了教材和其他有关资料(见末尾“参考文献”)和对英、汉语的修辞格形式、作用和意义之对比,重点对代表性最强的43种英语修辞格的形式、作用及其意义作如下的分析,以此作为英语修辞格的总结,一为初学者之用,二为求得各位批评:
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3.1 音韵辞格(Phonological figures of speech)
语言的三要素是语音、语法和词汇。而英语是一种拼音文字,其语音语调在英语修辞中起的作用与汉语相比就要大得多。由于英语句子的词序相当固定,若要想改变或调整句子的意思,有时仅仅依靠词序的变化是不行的。何况英语中各种音韵感强的词汇和语调能够极其有效地表达意思和思想感情的微妙变化。音韵修辞格的效果所依靠的不只是词义而是音韵。这类修辞格的应用由于能够使人强烈地感受到语言的音乐美而具有生动、形象、逼真的描述效果。
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3.1.1 拟声(Onomatopoeia) “拟声”实际上是模仿有关事物和动作或行为的声音来造词。拟声词的应用能够使人广泛联想,形成声音与知觉间的共鸣。这样语言表达就会更加直观、生动、形象、传神。这种现象在汉语里也常见,有时还有相互对应的词汇(Mew, miaow 喵;ding dong 钉铛!)例如: (1) As you approach the copper-smith's market, a tinkling and banging and clashing begins to impinge on your ear.(你一走近白铁制品市场,就会有一片叮叮铛铛、哐哐镗镗声开始妨碍你的听力。)(from "The Middle Eastern Bazaar")
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(2) (根据动物的声音而成的)Apes gibber. Asses bray. Bears growl. Beetles drone
(2) (根据动物的声音而成的)Apes gibber. Asses bray. Bears growl. Beetles drone. Bulls bellow. Camels grunt. Cats mew (purr). Ducks quack. Eagles scream. Flies buzz. Frogs croak. Geese cackle (gabble). Goats bleat. Horses neigh (snort). Hens cluck. Larks warble. Lions roar. Magpies chatter. Mice squeak. Owls hoot (screech). Pigeons coo. Pigs squeal (grunt). Pugs yelp. Ravens croak. Snakes hiss. Thrushes whistle. Turkeys gobble. Wolves howl.
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3.1.2 头韵(Alliteration) 根据希腊文词源,“头韵”的基本意思是“重复使用同一个字母”,但在形式上是指连续重复靠近字词开头的辅音,不一定是重复字词的起首字母。“头韵”是古英语诗歌文体不可缺少的因素,但也常见于现代英语散文、新闻、讲演和广告之中。其作用是利用音谐实现乐感,给人留下深刻的印象。由于汉语里面没有与“头韵”相对应的修辞格,所以翻译这一类的英语句子时只能够尽量做到达意,但难以做到传神。例如: (1) It was a splendid population – for all the slow, sleepy, sluggish-brained sloths stayed at home. (那是个最优秀的人群 -- 因为所有的懒虫、睡虫、和反应迟钝的懒东西都还呆在家里。)--Noel Grove: Mark Twain — Mirror of America
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(2) It was that population that gave to California a name forgetting up astounding enterprises and rushing them through with a magnificent dash and daring and a recklessness of cost and consequences, which she bears unto this day—and when she projects a new surprise, the grave world smiles as usual, and says "Well, that is California all over." (只有那些人才给了加利福尼亚一个至今还享之不尽的美好名声:她不怕牺牲、不惜代价、突飞猛进地建立和发展了震惊世界的事业;每当她在设计新的奇迹时,拘谨的人们只是照常微笑着说:“唔,那就是加利福尼亚风格。) --Noel Grove: Mark Twain — Mirror of America (3) The Russian danger is therefore our danger, and the danger of the United States, just as the cause of any Russian fighting for his hearth and home is the cause of free men and free peoples in every quarter of the globe. (俄国的危机因此也是我们的危机,同时也在危及美国;俄国人民拼命去争取幸福和自由的事业也属于享受着自由的人们和各个民族所有的全世界。) --Winston S. Churchill: Speech on Hitler's Invasion of the USSR (4) Bye, Bye, Balanced Budget! (再见吧!再见,平衡的预算!)
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半韵(Assonance) 英语中的“半韵”(根据《牛津现代高级英汉双解词典》)是指两个或两个以上的单词中只有重读的元音相同,而其后的辅音不相同。这种修辞格有利于求得声音的悦耳效果。例如: (1) I arise from dreams of thee In the first sweet sleep of night. --Percy Bysshe Shelley: The Indian Serenade 值得说明的是,在英诗中可见诗行末尾有两词以上的尾音(包括词尾的辅音在内)彼此相同(如:say, day, play 同韵;measure, pleasure 同韵;puff, rough 同韵)。这种情况在英语中常被称为 rhyme,我想在汉语中应该叫做“全韵”,这样正好与刚才提到的“半韵”(assonance)对应起来。下面可见这种“全韵”在诗中的应用:
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(2) One word is too often profaned For me to profane it,
One feeling too falsely disdained For thee to disdain it Percy Bysshe Shelley: TO── [有个词遭太多亵渎, 我不愿再亵渎; 有份情被太多鄙薄, 你不得再鄙薄。 --雪莱:《致───》】 trans.caozhixi
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所以,严格说来,汉语中的“押韵”虽然与英语中的“半韵”相似,但更接近英语中的“全韵”。例如:
劝君莫惜金缕衣, 劝君惜起少年时。 花开堪折直须折, 莫待无花空折枝。 --杜秋娘:《金缕衣》
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【Fletcher译: If you will take advice, my friend, For wealth you will not care. But while fresh youth is in you, Each precious moment spare. When flowers are fit for cutting, Then pluck them as you may. Ah, wait not till the bloom be gone, To bear a twig away. --DU Qiuniang: Riches】
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Brocades Friend, care not much for brocades, But spare the youth of your age; Flowers fit for cutting pick, Not to, bloom gone, pluck bare twigs. (trans. caozhixi)
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这种情况在其他的文体中也能看到。例如下面的句子中的 much-touted 和much-clouted 虽然有人将其划入“半韵”(assonance),但实际上将其划入“全韵”(rhyme)更为合适。
(4) The difference between the much-touted Second International (1934) and the much-clouted Third International (1961) is not like the difference between yearly models but like the difference between the horse and buggy and the automobile. (区别倍受褒奖的韦氏字典第二版国际版和横遭谩骂的第三版 不像区别不同年代生产的不同型号的汽车,而是很像区别马车和汽车。) --Bergen Evans: But What's a Dictionary For? (trans. caozhixi)
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谐音(Consonance) “谐音”是指连续或相近的字词中不同的元音后面出现相同的辅音(有时还有元音)。这种修辞格在英语诗歌和散文中常见,但是在现代汉语里面没有,所以在汉译时难传神,只能是尽量“达意”。例如: (1) What would houses and horses be to me without him? (怎么也不会想到家和马!我怎能没有他?) (2) criss-cross (纵横交错) (3) tittle-tattle(搬弄是非) (4) wishy-washy(空洞无物)
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同源词并列(Paregmenon) 英语中的“同源词并列”这种修辞格指的是因几个同源词的连续使用而凭借其类似的音韵增强语气。近距离使用同源词因同音重复而反复撞击读者的心灵,从而加深印象。但是,汉语因没有英语的这种利用词根派生的能力而没有与“同源词并列”相对应的修辞格。所以,我们在学习英语时要细心体会其词意,同时,在翻译时可以考虑用其他的形式来补偿其独特的修辞意义。例如:
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同源词并列(Paregmenon) 英语中的“同源词并列”这种修辞格指的是因几个同源词的连续使用而凭借其类似的音韵增强语气。近距离使用同源词因同音重复而反复撞击读者的心灵,从而加深印象。但是,汉语因没有英语的这种利用词根派生的能力而没有与“同源词并列”相对应的修辞格。所以,我们在学习英语时要细心体会其词意,同时,在翻译时可以考虑用其他的形式来补偿其独特的修辞意义。例如:
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(1) The bride within the bridal dress had withered like the dress,and had no brightness left but the brightness of her sunken eyes. (新娘穿着礼服枯槁得像礼服,失去了容光,只留下点滴眼神深陷在眼窝中。)--Charles Dickens (trans. caozhixi) (2) The flowing water helped her thoughts to flow.(潺潺的流水使她浮想联翩。)-- Rumer Godden
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重复(Repetitions) “重复”作为一种修辞格,常见于演说词、诗歌、散文、小说和议论等较长的篇章之中。形式上,它可分为句首重复、句尾重复、首尾重复和间隔重复等。“重复”的目的是为了表达强烈的感情,表示越来越加剧的紧迫感,强调某一事物或观点的意义。“重复”无论是在汉语还是在英语里都是重要的修辞手段。例如:
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(1) I say to you today, my friends, so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal." I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave-owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood; I have a dream-- That one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice; I have a dream--
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That my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character; I have a dream today. I have a dream that one day down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with its governor having his lips dripping with the words of interposition and nullification, one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers; I have a dream today. I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, and rough places will be made plane and crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.
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美国著名黑人运动领袖马丁.路德.金(Martin Luther King) 在上面的演说词 “I Have a Dream”中,先后有九次重复了 I Have a Dream (that...)的句式。他以逐渐加强的情感使得演讲极富感召力,从而把听众带到了一个美好的未来。 从下面的举例可见“重复”的各种形式:
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(2) I'll tell you, Governor, if you only let me get a word in, I'm willing to tell you. I'm wanting to tell you. I'm waiting to tell you. (长官,只要你让我说句话,我就会告诉你;我愿意告诉你,我很想告诉你,我正等着要告诉你。)--George Bernard Shaw(句首重复与平行句式重复) (3) You ought to be happy, but you are not happy. You can be happy,though, if you buy what we are making for you! (你本该幸福,但你并不幸福。你若想幸福,但请买下我们特意准备的礼物!)(句尾重复) (trans. caozhixi) (4) Half the time, we cheat the foremen, the foremen cheat the management; the management cheats the customers; the customers are we. (在大半时间里,我们欺骗的是监工,监工欺骗的是厂主,厂主欺骗的是客人,而客人正是我们。) (首尾重复)(trans. caozhixi)
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(5) The American is careless in his manner, his dress and his address; he is careless about his house and his garden, careless in social relationships, shuffling off old and taking on new with utmost carelessness, careless about observing laws, rules and regulations, careless about his food and his drink, and impatient with ceremony, careless about money. He tends to be careless about larger things as well. Perhaps carelessness is the most common and the most pervasive denominators in the American character. (美洲人一切都很随便:举止随便、衣着随便、住房随便、迁居随便,环境随便。他们社会交往也随便:随便断友、随便结友。他们崐在规章制度、法律法规方面,在吃喝礼仪方面,甚至在钱财等大事上面都很随便。) --Henry Steele Commager(间隔重复)
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3.2 意象辞格(Imagery Figures of Speech)
拟人(Personification) “拟人”是指把没有生命的东西拟作有生命的东西并赋予它们以人的特性、思想、感情和活动。这种方法在英汉修辞中都常见,其作用主要有二:其一是在童话故事中或科普文体中用形象、生动和寓言般的语言来解释或说明事物或概念,从而使其浅显易懂。例如: (1) It was now spring, and all over the country there were little blossoms and little birds. Only in the garden of the selfish Giant it was still winter. The birds did not come to sing as there were no children in it, and the trees forgot to blossom. Only the snow and the frost were pleased. "Spring has forgotten this garden," they said, "So we can lie here all the year round." The snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak and the frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the north wind to stay with them, and he came. (转眼就到了春天,到处都有鲜花和小鸟。只有一个花园属于自私的巨人,那里还是冬天。那里没有小孩,所以小鸟不来唱歌,树木也不发叶、开花。高兴的只有冰霜和白雪:“春天遗忘这个花园了,我们可以全年在此常住了。”白雪解开自己的冰衣把大地覆盖,冰霜也给树木披上银装。然后,他们又去请来了北风与他们同住。)--Oscar Wilde
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其二、“拟人”能被用来抒发强烈的思想感情,给人留下深刻的印象。例如,Marion Bowland 在《致我的旧旅游鞋》(“To My Old Hiking Shoes”)中就用“拟人”法表达了他对那双鞋子的怀念之情: (2) Do you remember the slopes of slippery pine needles that you trod so surely, the great fallen tree trunks and boulders over which you scrambled? All your scars are honorable. You never failed me on the roughest trails; on glistening deck and spray-glazed rocks, you were as steady as on the level beach.... (你还记得你曾经自信过人地一踏而过的那些落满了松针的陡坡和那些倒下来的巨大树干和圆石头吗?你身上所有的伤疤都是你的荣誉证书。即使是在崎岖的小路上你也从未让我跌倒过;即使是在船上最滑的甲板上和被海浪冲刷得最滑的岩石上,你也使我如履平坦的沙滩一样稳健而踏实。)
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“拟人”法容易理解,但是在把事物比拟成人时要注意英汉语在性别问题上的习惯。一般来说,我们把大自然、祖国、月亮、夜晚、和平、欢乐和船只等比作阴性;把太阳、战争、疾病、时间和恐惧等比作阳性。这种划分的标准一方面是对传统(如史诗和神话)的继承和发扬,另一方面是依据心理因素而定。
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夸张(Hyperbole) “夸张”是指对事物特征过分强调,以便激发人们的想象,从而产生强烈的修辞效果。其作用主要有三: 其一、深刻揭露和批判社会弊病和不良现象,在幽默文体中还带有喜剧的效果。例如: (1) His reputation as an authority on Scripture is recognized throughout the world. (作为圣经权威,他已誉满全球。)--John Scopes: The Trial That Rocked the World (2) And at last, as a due and fitting climax to the shameless persecution that party rancor had inflicted upon me, nine little toddling children, of all shades of colors and degrees of raggedness, were taught to rush onto the platform and call me PA! (反对党因为对我怀有深仇大恨而最后给了我一个最恰当、最无耻的报复:他们指使九个肤色不同、衣衫褴缕、蹒跚学步的孩子一齐冲上台来,齐声对我喊:“爸爸”。)--Mark Twain: Running for Governor
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其二、渲染喜怒哀乐的情感。例如: (3) Hamlet: I love Ophelia, forty thousand brothers could not, with all their quantity of love, make up my sum.(哈姆雷特说:“我爱奥菲莉娅,我的爱已经超过了四百万个兄弟的爱之和。”)--William Shakespeare
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其三、在史诗中体现英雄的气概。例如: (4) Paul was cutting down trees near Whistling River one day. Suddenly the river rose on its hind legs and squirted 4519 gallons of water straight into the middle of Paul's whiskers. Paul let out an angry yell. People heard him from a thousand miles. "I'll tame that river," Paul said, "I'm going to make some changes in it. I'll get rid of its curves"...(一天,保罗正在河边伐木。突然,河水站了起来,一口气把4519 加仑的河水喷进了保罗的胡子里。人们在1000里以外的地方都能听到保罗的吼声:“我要征服这条河,我要使它改道,我要把河道捋直。”)--Gladys G. Doty “夸张”这种修辞格在汉语里也很常用。例如:
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(5) 他们看见那些受人尊敬的小财东,往往垂着一尺长的涎水。--毛泽东:《中国社会各阶级的分析》
(6) 这媳妇才算媳妇,要如今的妇女呀,别说守一年,男人眼没闭,她就瞧上旁人了。--周立波:《暴风骤雨》
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顿呼语(Apostrophe) “顿呼语”是指在文章或说话过程中对不在场之人或事物所作的呼语,或把某种概念或特质拟人化了的谈话。这种修辞格通常与隐喻和拟人法用。例如: (1) O Cuckoo! Shall I call thee Bird, Or but a wandering voice? --William Wordsworth (啊,布谷!我该叫你鸟,还是迷了路的人?)
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(2) O world! O life! O time! On whose last steps I climb, Trembling at that where I have stood before; When will return the glory of your prime? No more ----Oh, never more! (Percy Bysshe Shelley: A Lament)
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(啊,人世!啊,人生!啊,时光! 我爬到了您的尾端; 颤抖着,我站那儿想问: 何时您还有正茂风华? 完了---,要这干么?! (Percy Bysshe Shelley: A Lament)
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明喻(Simile) 作为一种修辞格,“明喻”通常由 like 或 as引导,由三个部分组成:本体、喻词和喻体。例如,在下面的例句中,the sky 是本体,like 是喻词,a casque of scorching steel 是喻体。 (1) And the sky above my head became like a casque of scorching steel. --Oscar Wilde: The Ballad of Reading Gaol “明喻”用来表示两个不相似的事物之间的非一般意义上的比较,这种比较的依据通常是某种抽象的品质特性。请看下面的例句:
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(2) Jim looks like his brother. (吉姆兄弟俩相象。)
(3) Jim and his brother are as like as two peas.(他兄弟俩长得象双胞胎一样。) 从 (2) 可见,所比较的是两个相似的事物(两者都是人)在一般意义上的比较,故没有“明喻”的修辞格;从 (3) 可见,所比较的不是相似的事物(两个人与两颗豆子),同时也是在非一般意义上的比较(两兄弟相似的程度与两颗豆子相似的程度之间的比较),故拥有“明喻”的修辞格。
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虽然“明喻”在英语和汉语中因语言习惯不同而在喻体的选择上有时有很大的差异,如:汉语里常有“他瘦得像干猴子似的”等说法,而在英语里通常用“He is as thin as a rake(小耙子)。”但是,“明喻”在英汉两种语言中所起的作用基本相同:用来使描写更形象、解释更具体、说明更透彻。例如: (4) The water lay gray and wrinkled like an elephant's skin. --Nancy Hale(使描写更形象) (5) So compared with any ordinary beam of light, the laser beam is a very orderly affair indeed. It is like a military march--everyone in step. In an ordinary beam, the waves are like the people in a crowd going to a football match, jostling and bumping into one another. (和其他光束比起来,激光就像军队齐步走一样----每个人都步调一致;而在普光中,光波就像走在一起去看足球赛的人群----相互碰撞,相互拥挤。) --Albert Einstein(使抽象繁杂的东西解释得更具体、更易懂)
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(6) He was like a cock who thought the sun had risen for him to crow
(6) He was like a cock who thought the sun had risen for him to crow.(他就像一只骄傲的公鸡,以为太阳每天是为了让它啼鸣而升起来的。)--George Eliot(为了透彻地说明这个人表现欲太强的特征) 在这里值得补充的是,在英语中,“类比”(Analogy)是“明喻”(Simile)的延伸(extended simile),因为这种明喻所指的是两个不同事物之间在多种抽象品质方面的共性。“类比”修辞格常见于科普文章(有时也出现在文学作品)之中,其作用是使极其复杂的事物更容易地被理解,所用的句式多是由 (Just)as...so... 所引导的。例如: (7) Just as French people enjoy their wine, so the British enjoy their beer.(正像法国人欣赏葡萄酒一样,英国人最喜欢啤酒。)--Paul Procter: Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English
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隐喻(Metaphor) “隐喻”的作用与“明喻”相同:使描写更形象、解释更具体、说明更透彻,但是在结构上有所不同:省略了喻词,本体和喻体融合一起,事物比较的共同点被隐含在句子里因而较“明喻”难以理解,需要联想才能体会得到。例如: (1) All the world's a stage. --William Shakespeare(用来生动地描写人世的复杂性) (cf. All the world is like a stage.) (2) We don't need to spoon-feed the students.(用来具体地解释教学之间的关系) (cf. We don't need to teach the students like we spoon-feed the babies) (3) The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants. It is natural manure. --Thomas Jefferson (作者把自由喻为大树,把鲜血喻为肥料,生动形象地说明了文题。)
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值得注意的是“隐喻”的另外三种类型:“讽喻”或(Allegory)、“寓言”(Fable)和“劝喻”(Parable)。“讽喻”是以人物代表忍耐、纯洁和真诚等各种观念,用隐喻和拟人等有关修辞格,综合组成故事,从而揭示道德意识,给人以教育。典型的例子是班扬(Bunyan)的名作《天路历程》(Pilgrim's Progress)。“寓言”是把各种动物拟人化,当作传说中的人物来讲故事,从而给人以道德教育。最典型的例子有《伊索寓言故事》(Aesop's Fables)。“劝喻”(Parable)与“寓言”一样也是讲故事,但不同的是“劝喻”的故事中的人物不是动物,甚至有时在故事里没有人物出现。看过圣经的人都知道耶酥常常为了劝诫而讲故事,圣经故事大多是有“劝喻”的故事。典型的例子有《浪子的故事》(The Prodigal Son或The Lost Son, The Lost Sheep)。
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转喻(Metonymy) “转喻”是指用一个人或事物的名称来替换与其有关的另一事物的名称,从而把几个词的意思凝聚起来注入一个单词或词组中,使比喻的语言即简洁又生动。例如: (1) …but for making money, his pen would prove mightier than his pickax. --Noel Grove: Mark Twain --- Mirror of America (句子中用 pen 代替 writing,用 pickax 代替 digging gold) (2) He took to the bottle. (句子中用 bottle 代替了liquor和wine等) (3) I have never read Li Bai. (句子中用中国诗人李白的名字代替了李白的作品) 下面是些常见的“转喻”例子:
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(4) (用人名于“转喻”中)Uncle Tom指“逆来顺受、无反抗精神的人”;John Bull指“英国或英国人”;Uncle Sam 指“美国政府”;Solomon指“哲人、智者”;Cinderella指“丑小鸦变成白天鹅”。 (5) (用地名于“转喻”中)The Oval Office指“美国总统”;Capitol Hill指“美国国会”;Hollywood指“美国电影业”;Beijing指“中国政府”。 (6) (用与职业有关的名词于“转喻”中)blue-collar指“体力劳动者”; white-collar指“脑力劳动者”;the veil 指“修女”;the press指“新闻界”;the throne指“君王、王位”;the stage 指“演艺业”;the crown指“王权”。 (7) (用身体部位名于“转喻”中)heart指“感情、情感、感受”等;head, brain 指“理智、智慧、机敏”等;tongue 指“口才、语言”等;nose指“直觉、知觉、感觉”等。
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汉语中也有类似的修辞格,如:在“枪杆子里面出政权”一句中,毛泽东把枪杆子代替武装斗争。但是不同的语言习惯有不同的表达形式,我们不能相互全都照搬。
在此必须提出的是我们不能由于前面的这些常见的“转喻”例词而忘记了另外一种在英语诗歌等文体中常见的修辞格:“引喻”(Allusion)。“引喻”即间接提及或暗指历史上或过去的文学作品中,特别是希腊神话、圣经和莎士比亚的作品中所出现的某些意义十分深刻的事物。这种修辞格由于其意义未能直接表明而难于理解。例如:
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(8)It was an astonishing accident followed by an equally astonishing recovery, and many doctors, like doubting Thomas, refused to believe it until they had examined the man themselves.(这的确是个古怪的事故,但其病情的好转和恢复也是一个古怪的事情。所以,即使是医生也大都像疑心重的托马斯一样,直到亲自考察一番以后才愿承认这是真人真事。)--Dr. Colin Blakemore: How Brain Research Got Started 这里的“引喻”在 doubting Thomas,暗指了耶酥的12大门徒之一托马斯的疑心:听说耶酥死后又从坟墓里出来了一事时,他说他绝对不会相信此事,除非是亲自再看见耶酥手心的钉子痕迹、亲自把手指头再插进耶酥手心的钉子孔、亲自把手插进耶酥的两肋。
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提喻(Synecdoche) “提喻”与“转喻”因都是指替代而容易混淆,但是只要把握了关键的区别就不难了:“转喻”是用一物代替另外一物,而“提喻”中的替代体现在一体之中。“提喻”是用整体与部分之间、易懂的词与难懂的术语之间、特殊与一般之间、衣物与穿衣物的人之间等等的相互替代。在例 (1) 中, a white skin 代替了a white person;在例(2)中,purse代替了money;在例(3)中,souls代替了people。所以这三个句子中都有“提喻”。 (1) All people who work with their hands are partly invisible, and the more important the work they do, the less visible they are. Still a white skin is always fairly conspicuous.(用双手劳动的人总是不显眼:他们的工作越重要就越不显眼;但是白皮肤总是很引人注目。)--George Orwell: Marrakech
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(2) But neither his vanity nor his purse is any concern of the dictionary's.(但是,无论是虚荣心还是钱袋子都不是这本字典所关心的问题。)--Bergen Evans: But What's a Dictionary For? (3) I walked, with other souls in pain.(我是走了,但其他很多颗心灵还在痛哭之中。)--Oscar Wilde: The Ballad of Reading Gaol 但如果比较下面的两个句子中 hand 和 head 两词的意义和用法,我们不难发现例(4)中的 hand 是部分(手)代替整体(人),故用了“提喻”,而例 (5) 中的 head 和 heart 是用一事物(头和心)代替另一个事物(理智和感情),故用了“转喻”。 (4) Many hands make light work. (人多力量大。) (Proverb) (5) You must let your head rule your heart.(你应该让你的脑子管住你的心。)
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3.3 技巧辞格(Technical Figures of Speech)
所谓技巧辞格,与音韵修辞格和意象修辞格一样,只是一种分类的方式。我们用它来描写我们在写作过程中所利用的那些虽然没有固定形式、常常重叠交错出现但又的确构成了生动感人而幽默的语言、具有一般写作技巧所未能实现的效果之修辞格。
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委婉说法(Euphemism) “委婉说法”作为修辞手法,是指用委婉或温和的词句来表达令人不满意的概念等,即用无害的词句表达讨厌的概念。例如: (1) (“发疯了”的委婉说法) a. He has (got) a slate (或 a screw) loose. b. He has gone off the rails. c. He's touched in the head (或:queer; odd; crazy; unhinged; off his head; out of his head; unsound in the mind; not of sound mind; unbalanced; unsettled in the mind; not right in the mind; out of his mind; of unsound mind; soft in mind; not all there; far-gone; not in his right mind; simple-minded; brain-sick; all possessed; not right; not right in his upper story; not quite right upstairs; nuts; nutty; daffy; dotty; goofy; loony; buggy; cuckoo; feeble-minded; innocent; simple; off his chump; off his nut; off his base; off his trolley; off the track; off his rocker; mentally ill 等等。)
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(2) (“死亡”的委婉说法) a. After life's fitful fever he sleeps well. --W. Shakespeare b. The dying sun, round and yellow as a pumpkin, was giving up its roseate ghost to the skies. c. And of course I am anxious to see them married, too--before I go. d. If I drop let us see what there is for you.--William Makepeace Thackeray e. If I'm done those two ought to fetch you something.--William Makepeace Thackeray f. With this sum... and the pension of a widow should she fall, she would be now absolutely independent of the world...--William Makepeace Thackeray g. And then she fell to thinking what she should do if ──if anything happened to poor good Rawdon. --William Makepeace Thackeray h. It'll be the workhouse, if it's not the other thing. --John Galsworthy
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i. It is the less surprising that probability of a transient earthly bliss for other persons when he himself should have entered into glory, had not a potently sweetening effect.--George Eliot: Middlemarch j. He ceased to be (或:is no more; passed away; is departed from us; closed his life; checked out; took leave of life and bowed himself to the will of Heaven; kicked the bucket; kicked off; gave up the ghost; is gone to his rest; is gone to glory; breathed his last; quitted this world; made his exit; passed on; fell asleep; closed his eyes; went out like the snuff of a candle; took his last sleep; went to his last home; paid the debt of nature; joined his ancestors; went over to (join) the majority; was gathered to his fathers; went west; went off the hook; popped the hook; knocked off; called it a day; piped off; left us; joined his Maker; went to his reward; deceased; bit the dust (i.e. died on the battlefield); cashed in his chips; took the last count; went to his long account; fired his last shot; made the supreme sacrifice; met an untimely end; received notice to quit; handed in his dinner pail 等).
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(3) (“醉酒了”的委婉说法) a. He has had a drop too much; b. He is fuddled (或:merry; jolly; happy; gay; groggy; in his cups; smelling of the coral; top-heavy; full of Dutch courage; glorious; reeling; far-gone; soaked; boiled; canned; corned; crocked; oiled; fried; lubricated; fresh; loaded; primed; afflicted; organized; polluted; sewed up; lit up; fired up; pie-eyed; out; pickled; plastered等等). (4) (用形容词的比较级或最高级表示) a. His coat has seen better days. (i.e. It’s old and worn.) b. I know better. (i.e. I'm not so foolish.)
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3.3.2 迂回语法(Circumlocution)
“迂回语法”作为一种修辞格,是指用太多的词句来表达很少词句可以表达的思想,常见于幽默的作品中。例如: (1) He is a member of the lower social-economic bracket.(cf. He is poor.) (2) The lieutenant was irritable; the lieutenant called him a name--well, not a nice sort of name. It referred to his mother.(cf. The lieutenant called him son of a bitch.(军官骂了他一句“狗娘养的”))
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渐升(Climax) 英语中的“渐升”与汉语中的“层递”法的“阶升”一样,也是根据三项或三项以上事物的内在逻辑关系,由小到大、又少到多、由浅入深、由轻到重、由远到近、由低到高......依次升级,像爬梯子一样,逐渐达到高潮。这种修辞格多用于讲演稿、论说文和散文、诗歌、小说中,从而撞击人们的心弦,达到感人的目的。例如: (1) Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested. (有些书仅供玩味,有些书可供浏览,仅有少数书值得细读和消化。)--Francis Bacon: Of Studies
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(2) We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting-place for those who here gave their lives that the nation might live. It is altogether fit and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we cannot dedicate--we cannot consecrate--we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract... --Abraham Lincoln: Gettysberg Address 林肯在他的“葛底斯堡演说”中,按照程度的浅深,渐渐加强语势,增强感染力。他所用的三个词 dedicate、consecrate、hallow 在语义上依次上升(奉献----献祭----使成圣地),层层加码,直达顶点。
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3.3.4 渐降(Anti-climax 或 Bathos)
“渐降”与“渐升”相比,在相关事物的层次方面有所不同,它可以只要两个层次。在语义结构方面,它正好与“渐升”相反,按照由大到小、由远到近、由重到轻的顺序排列语言成份,形成在语义上虎头蛇尾的不断下降之势头,达到嘲笑、讽刺或幽默等喜剧性目的。例如: (1) Seldom has a city gained such world renown, and I am proud and happy to welcome you to Hiroshima, a town known throughout the world for its--oysters. --Jacques Danvoir: Hiroshima--the "Liveliest" City in Japan 从这个句子可见,市长本来很可能是要提广岛是因二战中受“原子弹轰炸”而闻名于全世界的事情,但是他突然想到这一事件并非是光彩的。因此马上改上了“牡蛎”一词。从此我们可见其戏剧性效果之所在。 (2) Ye Gods! Annihilate but space and time and make two lovers happy. (上帝呀!请消灭一切吧!只留下空间和时间!只让一对相爱的人幸福无边!)--by Alexander Pope
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矛盾修辞(Oxymoron) 在英汉语中广为使用的“矛盾修辞”通常把两个意义互相矛盾或不协调的词以“一为修饰语、一为中心词”(在汉语里可能以并列词组)的形式用在一起,使它们看似违背逻辑但实际上却是运用了同一事物的相互对立的两个因素的交相辉映来表达事物的微妙内涵和寓意,令人感到意味深长。例如: (1) Dudley Field Malone called my conviction a victorious defeat. (D.F.梅棱说我的败诉是一个胜利。)--John Scopes: The Trial That Rocked the World
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(2) 啊,祖国,我亲爱的母亲! 你是那么古老而又年轻; 你是那么富饶而又贫穷; 你是那么先进而又落后。 --刘景林:《祖国啊,母亲》 (3) It has the poorest millionaire, the littlest great man, the haughtiest beggars, the plainest beauties, the lowest skyscrapers, the dolefulest pleasures of any town I ever saw.(这里有别的城市从未见过的最穷的富翁、最渺小的伟人、最高傲的乞丐、最平凡的美人、最底矮的高楼和最令人悲哀的快乐。)--O. Henry
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关于“矛盾修辞”构成方法的分析问题,可有不同的出发点。从结构上看,构成方法主要有以下几种:
其一、形容词+名词:a living death (活着的死人) 其二、形容词+形容词:poor rich guys (可怜的阔小子) 其三、副词+形容词:terribly good news (好得可怕的新闻) 其四、动词+副词:hasten slowly (慢腾腾地赶路) 其五、名词+名词:love-hate relationship (爱恨交加的关系)
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从描述的对象看,构成方法有以下四种: 其一、描述主观感受与客观实际之间的矛盾(突出主观感受):audible stillness(听得到的宁静) 其二、描述事物的现象与本质之间的矛盾(突出描述的主观色彩): grim friendliness(无情的友情) 其三、描述内心的矛盾(突出感情的复杂性): delicious pain(乐趣无穷的痛苦) 其四、描述外表与内心的矛盾(突出内心与外情之间的失调):honorable villain(体面的恶棍)
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似非而是的隽语(Paradox) “似非而是的隽语”是指表面上看来自相矛盾但却不无道理的修辞手法。这种手法构思巧妙,因而使得很多句子都成为了名言。英、汉语中例句很多: (1) The child is father of/to the man. (三岁看大,七岁看老。)--Proverb (2) 有的人活着, 他已经死了; 有的人死了, 他还活着。 --臧克家:《有的人》
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值得注意的是“似非而是的隽语”与“矛盾修辞”有相似之处,但又不完全相同。其主要差别在于:“矛盾修辞”依靠意义矛盾词的连续排列来完成(如例(3)),而“似非而是的隽语”依靠句式的结构来完成(如例(4))。例句如下: (3) No light, only darkness visible. (没有光亮,只看得见黑暗。)--John Milton: Paradise Lost (4) Art is a form of lying in order to tell the truth.(艺术是为讲真理而存在的撒谎形式。)-- Pablo Picasso 还要注意的是不可把“似非而是的隽语”与“警句”(Epigram)混淆。“警句”作为一种修辞格,指的是具有赞美或讽刺意义的短小、简练、诙谐的格言。例如: (5) Knowledge is power. (知识就是力量。) (6) Walls have ears. (隔墙有耳。) (7) Difficulties are opportunities. (困难就是机会。)
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轭式搭配(Zeugma) 从修辞实质上讲,英语中的“轭式搭配”与汉语中的“拈连”基本相同:都是将适应于甲项的词语(大多为动词、形容词或介词)顺势拈连乙项,从而达到活泼语言、幽默生活之目的的修辞手法。例如,“人穷志不穷”中的“穷”字,一般来说,与“人”搭配合适,但是与“志”搭配是不当的。然而,这一个字在此句中通过“拈连”,不但不牵强,反而起到了极强的修辞作用。又如,wage war and peace中的wage本来只能与 war 搭配,但被巧妙地用到了peace之上,并体现出极强的表现力。 英语中的“轭式搭配”与汉语中的“拈连”之不同之处基本上是一个习惯问题:英语中用来拈连的词通常不必重复(如上面的例词 wage);而汉语里用来拈连的词通常必须重复(如上面的例句中的“穷”字)。还有很多例子,下面举出几个:
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(1) The businessmen left in high spirits and a Cadillac
(1) The businessmen left in high spirits and a Cadillac. (那些商人离开时情绪很高,坐的是卡迪拉名牌小车。)--《英语美国传统词典》P.1489 句子中 的 in 同时与 high spirits 和 a Cadillac 拈连。 (2) I would my horse had the speed of your tongue.(我的马跑路的速度如果能有你的舌头说话的速度那么快就该有多好啊!)--William Shakespeare: Much Ado About Nothing 句子中的 speed 同时与 horse 和tongue 拈连,使人通过对 horse 和 tongue 的比较而产生联想。 (3) 哈西姆跟许多坎尔井匠人一样,替水霸、地主挖了一辈子的水,给自己挖到的只是贫穷和疾病。--袁鹰:《戈壁水长流》 句子中的“挖”字重复使用了一次。
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3.3.8 转换修饰(Transferred Epithet)
“转换修饰”,或称“移就”,实际上是转换修饰词的位置,使它去修饰它所不该修饰的成分。这种修辞格在英、汉语里都常见。例如: (1) Grey peace pervaded the wilderness-ringed Argentia Bay inNewfoundland. (纽芬兰的阿根夏湾四周都是荒芜,只有一片灰色的宁静。) --Herman Wouk: The Winds of War (2) Franklin Roosevelt listened with bright-eyed smiling attention.(F.罗斯福听着,带有一股喜形于色的注意力。)--Herman Wouk: The Winds of War (3) 我将深味这非人间的浓黑的悲凉;以我的最大哀痛显示于非人间,使它们快意于我的痛苦,就将这作为后死者的菲薄的祭品,奉献于逝者的灵前。 --鲁迅:《纪念刘和珍君》 (4) The Grapes of Wrath(《愤怒的葡萄》) --John Steinbeck
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美国作家J.斯坦贝克写的小说《愤怒的葡萄》叙述一批受骗去西部当葡萄采摘工移民的艰难困苦,小说以《愤怒的葡萄》为题目,显然是将采摘工的“愤怒”转换到葡萄上来,从而更形象地表现了主题。
从上面的例子可见,“转换修饰”主要用来激发联想、由此及彼、彼此交融、相互映衬、渲染气氛、加深意境。
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感叹(Exclamation) “感叹”作为一种修辞格,是指利用感叹号来表达吃惊、气愤、失望和兴奋等感情色彩的修辞方法。“感叹”方式主要有以下几种: 其一、用 What 或 How 开头的感叹句。例如: (1) What signs have been wafted after that ship! What prayers offered up at the deserted fireside of home! How often has the mistress, the wife, the mother pored over the daily news, to catch some casual intelligence of this rover of the deep! (那船后漂浮着的痕迹多美啊!家中凄凉炉边的祷告是多么虔诚啊!为了得到点滴的船讯,主妇、妻子和母亲们看报又是多么认真啊!)--Washington Irving
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其二、用带有感叹号的省略句。例如: (2) She a beauty! I should as soon call her mother a wit!(真是美人!她妈年轻时定是个才女!)--Jane Austen 其三、用带有感叹号的倒装句。例如: (3) Isn't it nice weather today! (今天天气不是很美骂?!)
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3.3.10 谨慎陈述(Understatement)
“谨慎陈述”作为一种修辞格,正好与“夸张”相反,是种保守或低调的说法。其加强语气的作用不仅是为了使语气委婉,而且含有讽刺意义。例如: (1) He has had a drop too much. (他多喝了一杯。) (用小量指大量。) (cf. He's drunk.) (2) I'm sort of (kind of) angry at your rashness.(我对你的鲁莽有点儿不高兴。)(用 kind of或of sorts 等等。)(cf. I am very angry at your rashness.)
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3.3.11 双重否定(Double Negation 或 Litotes)
“双重否定”其实也是“谨慎陈述”的另一种形式,即在某些词前加上否定词从而表达极强的肯定意义,或用否定表肯定。例如: (1) A: Would you like to come? (甲:你愿意来吗?) B: Not half. (乙:不止一半,很想来。)(用not half指very much) (2) He was not unhappy about his daughter's marriage. (他对女儿的婚事不是不高兴。)(否定词前加否定词) (cf. He was very happy about his daughter's marriage.) (3) No one is free from faults.(没有任何人能够摆脱差错。) (free from的意义是否定的。)(cf. Every one makes mistakes.) (4) A teacher cannot be too patient with his students.(教师对学生的耐心无论多大都不过分。) (用含有否定词的句型。)(cf. Teachers should be as patient as possible with his students.)
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3.4 讽刺与幽默修辞格(Satirical and Humorous Figures of Speech)
“讽刺与幽默修辞格”在英语中的运用比汉语中的运用要多得多。这是因为在中国的历史上,人们对皇帝、权贵、领导、上司、师长、父母和其他任何比自己资格老、年岁长、名望大的人都很敬重。虽然如此,但是我们在日常生活中还是可见各种讽刺和幽默的情境。讽刺和幽默如果运用的及时,就会有利于打击邪恶的行为、维护社会的文明的进步,所以值得学好用好。
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讽刺(Satire) “讽刺”虽然有滑稽的味道,但其目的不仅是使人发笑,而且是用来嘲弄愚蠢、罪恶或恶人。“讽刺”按照其尖刻程度(从小到大)可再分为三种类型:“影射”(innuendo)、讽刺(satire)和“讥讽”(sarcasm)。例如: (1) Cool was I and logical. Keen, calculating, perspicacious, acute and astute,--I was all of these. My brain was as powerful as a dynamo, as precise as a chemist's scales, as penetrating as a scalpel and --think of it!-- I was only eighteen.----Max Shulman: Love is a Fallacy 作者在这里通过揭露某些人自负的荒谬程度从而达到讽刺(satire)的目的,这种修辞意义体现在上下文之中。因此这种讽刺意义的实现方法是很间接的。
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(2) RODNEY. Ah, Judge Wilson, forgive me--but how can anyone see you if you insist on standing in Mr. Dickinson's shadow? --Peter Stone and Sherman Edwards: 1776,(scene 1) 在此句中罗德尼通过对威尔森的“影射”(innuendo)表示他对威尔森的反感,这种修辞方法比较直接地伤害了对方的感情。 (3) Since, aside from roaring and admonishing the "gentlemen from Springfield" that "accuracy and brevity are virtues, "the Post's editorial fails to explain what is wrong with the definition, we can only infer from "so simple" a thing that the writer takes the plain, downright, man-in-the-street attitude that a door is a door and any damned fool knows that.--Bergen Evans: But What's a Dictionary For? 在这里,作者通过对反对者的“讥讽”(sarcasm)来肯定自己的词典所给词义的准确性。这种修辞方法的运用很直接地伤害了对方的感情。
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(4) I do humbly offer it to public consideration that of the 120,000 children already computed, 20,000 may be reserved for breed, whereof only one fourth part to be males, which is more than we allow to sheep, black cattle, or swine;… that the remaining 100,000 may at a year old be offered in sale to the persons of quality and fortune through the kingdom, always advising the mother to let them suck plentifully in the last month, so as to render them plump and fat for a good table.... I grant this food will be somewhat dear, and therefore being proper or landlords, who, as they have already devoured most of the parents seem to have the best title to the children. (我斗胆建议大家考虑一下,把在册的12万儿童中留下2万以供人口繁殖,其中男性留四分之一,这已经比我们留的羊种、马种、牛种、和猪种的比例大多了;......剩下的10万可以在一周岁时买给大英帝国的有钱人家。一定要令其母从婴儿11个月开始多给婴儿饭吃,以便使小孩丰满些,供作富人桌上佳肴......
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我断言这种食物相当昂贵,所以只有那些把婴儿父母都榨干了的财主们才有品尝这些婴儿的资格。)
--Jonathan Swift: A Modest Proposal 这典型的例子,通过这项“庄重的建议”达到了“讽刺”和揭露统治阶级的兽行的目的。这种“讽刺”的方法很间接,但是讽刺意义十分深刻。
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双关(Pun) 英语中的“双关”是指在用词造句时表面上是一个意思,而暗中隐藏着另一个意思,即利用英语一词多义的特点,使同一个词(大多是同音异义词或同形异义词)在同一个时候传播两种词义,从而写出一词双关的句子,实现幽默或讽刺等目的。英、汉语里都有双关,但几乎不能互译,所以在阅读时要注意,以免不知所云。例如: (1) We must all hang together, or we shall hang separately. (我们要么紧紧地团结在一起,要么就会一个个地被绞死。)--by Benjamin Franklin 句中的 hang 是同形同音异义词,即表“团结一致”之意,又有“被处绞刑”之义。一词双意,形成双关。
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(2) A: Waiter! (服务员!) B: Yes, sir (来了,先生。) A: What‘s this? (这是什么!) B: It's bean soup, sir. (这是菜豆汤。) A: No matter what it's been. What IS it now? (过去是什么汤我不管。我只问这是什么汤?!) 对话中的双关是通过同音异形异义词 been 和 bean 的同音 [bi:n] 来实现的。对话中的发音[its bi:n su:p] 的意义有两种可能:其一是B的本义:“这是菜豆汤”(It's bean soup);其二是A的误会:“这在过去一直是汤”(It has been soup)。一音双义,构成双关。 下面的例子是汉语中通过同音 [shi]异义字词“诗”和“尸”来实现双关的。句中的“五马分尸”中的“尸”与“诗”同音,但用意是为了说明自己无法分“身”去做别的事情,如读书等等: (3) 目前忙着写诗、译诗、编诗、教诗、论诗,五马分尸之余,几乎毫无时间读诗,甚至无时间读书了。--余光中(台湾):《书斋.书灾》
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幽默(Humour) “幽默”是西方人最常用的修辞格之一,主要是通过自贬、自嘲或贬他、嘲他的方式使人发笑(但是有时这种贬低或嘲笑的内容并非全是过失或缺点)或从中取乐。在很多情况下,如果能够恰当运用一些幽默,我们的生活、我们的人际关系等等都将克服好多的窘迫和为难的情境,从而达到批评不伤情、被批不丢面子、道歉和拒绝而不困窘的境地。就其结构而言,“幽默”一般有三种表现形式:
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1)通过巧妙地运用同音异义词(homophones)和同形异义词(homographs)来实现幽默的目的。例如:
(1) A: What kind of "nese" are you? Are you Chinese, Pakistanese or Japanese? (甲:你是什么人?你是中国人,巴基斯坦人还是日本人?) B: I am Chinese. By the way, what kind of “key” are you? Are you a donkey, a monkey or a Yankee? 乙:我是中国人。你呢?你是什么仔?你是驴仔,猴子还是牛仔[美国人]? 这个对话的幽默是通过同音异义词(key--donkey, monkey 和 yankee)而实现的。乙方巧妙地模仿了甲方的思维方式,不卑不亢地回答了对方的挑战。
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2)故意使句法产生歧义从而引出幽默。例如:
(2) A: I‘m in a hurry. Call me a taxi? (甲:我很急。快叫我一辆出租车。) B: Sorry, you don't look like a taxi. Would you mind my calling you a buffalo? (乙:对不起!你不象出租车。我叫你水牛,好吗?) 这个对话的幽默是通过句法产生歧义(call 的两个不同句法结构:甲方把 call用作带双宾语的及物动词;乙方把 call 用作带复合宾语的及物动词)来实现幽默的,从而使乙方巧妙地帮甲方放松了一下情绪。 3)故意把不适合眼前语境的文体给用上了,从而导致幽默的产生。例如: (3) I have nothing to declare except my genius.(我所要申报的只有才智)--by Oscar Wilde 这是作者在海关申报纳税品时所说的,而“才智”作为海关纳税品提出来却是令人莫名其妙。因此诙谐幽默。
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反语(Irony) “反语”即反话正说或正话反说,是一种微妙的讥讽、谴责、发泄、抨击、蔑视或幽默的方式。例如: (1) After a while, it is the setting of man against man and creed against creed until we are marching backwards to the glorious age of the sixteenth century when bigots lighted faggots to burn the men who dared to bring any intelligence and enlightenment and culture to the human mind. --John Scopes: The Trial That Rocked the World 此例是一个“字词式反语”(verbal irony):用相反意义的字词表达真正的意思。作者在此反话正说(把黑暗的十六世纪说成是“光荣的时代”),目的是使其讥讽和谴责更为尖锐。 (2) I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled, and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee(炖肉丁)….
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此例是一个典型的“情境式反语”(situational irony):“反语”的真正意思不是靠句子结构,而是靠整个上下文来体现的。英国十八世纪著名作家J.斯威伏特(Jonathan Swift)在他的《一项庄重的建议》("A Modest Proposal")中,用的“反语”修辞格是极其巧妙的。为了揭露当时的英国统治者对爱尔兰人民的剥削,为了表现对爱尔兰人民饥寒交迫的悲惨境况的愤慨,他“建议”劳苦大众把自己的亲生骨肉当动物来饲养并买给有钱人当佳肴食用。作者反话正说、一本正经、沉着镇静、有理有据地论述了他的“建议”。其目的是猛烈鞭打当权者、唤起受压迫者的觉悟。
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3.5 句式修辞格(Syntactical Figures of Speech)
句子是用词和词组构成的、能够表达完整意思的语言单位。在(连续)说话时,每个句子都有一定的语调和语气,句子与句子之间有一个较长的停顿;在书面语上每句子的末尾用句号、问号和感叹号等。按照语气,句子可以分为四类:陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。按照结构,句子可以分为三类:简单句、并列句和复合句。根据不同的修辞手段来分类的话,句子可以分为很多的类别,如倒装句、省略句、平行句、散尾句和收尾句等等。句式的各种变化都有利于传达思想、态度和情绪,从而也就构成了修辞的一个重要方面,即句式修辞格。句子就像木匠手上的木头,可以根据各种情况变化万千。下面将主要讨论一些具有特殊功能的句式。
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3.5.1 平行(Parallelism)与反衬(Antithesis)
“平行”作为一种修辞格,是指把结构相同、意义并重、语气一致的几个词、词组或句子排列成串,形成一个整体,从而凝炼句子,使文章条理清楚、论点突出、语言流畅、对称悦耳、表现力强。例如: (1) To be or not to be,that is the question. (是生还是死,的确是个难题。)--William Shakespeare: Hamlet(字词平行) (2) We will never parley; we will never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gang. (与希特勒讲和?与他的同党谈判?我们不会,绝对不会!)--Winston S. Churchill: Speech on Hitler's Invasion of the U.S.S.R.(句子平行) (3) Then he drank a glass of water, pushed his plate to one side, and doubled the paper down before him between his elbows and read the paragraph over and over again.(然后,他喝了杯水,推盘子到一边,对折报纸放于眼前两肘之间,一遍又一遍地读着那段话。)--James Joyce(字词平行)
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(4) That is our policy and that is our declaration
(4) That is our policy and that is our declaration.(那就是我们的政策,那就是我们的宣言。)--Winston S. Churchill: Speech on Hitler's Invasion of the U.S.S.R.(句子平行) (5) They vanish from a world where they were of no consequence; where they achieved nothing; where they were a mistake and a failure and a foolishness; where they have left no sign that they had existed--a world which will lament them a day and forget them forever.(他们在这个世上无足轻重,无所成功,只有错误,只有失败,只有愚蠢;他们最后还得从这个世上消失,从这个对他们痛之一日,忘之永久的世上消失。)--Noel Grove: Mark Twain--Mirror of America(字词平行和句子结构平行崐的混合)
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值得注意的是,在平行句式里,如果有意识地把结构上前后对称和意义上前后对立的两个词、句并列在一起,就形成新的句式修辞格,即反衬(Antithesis)。例如:
(1) They vanish from a world which will lament them a day and forget them forever.(他们从人世间消失,从这个对他们痛之一日,忘之永久的世上永远消失。)--Noel Grove: Mark Twain---Mirror of America (句中lament 和 forget 意义相反,句式平行。) (2)The Christian believes that man came from above. The evolutionist believes that he must have come from below. (基督教教徒认为人是从天而降;但生物进化论者认为人是自地而出。) --John Scopes: The Trial That Rocked the World (句中的 Christian 与 Evolutionist意义相对;above 和 below 意义相对;句子结构平行。) (3) The coward does it with a kiss, the brave man with a sword!(懦夫杀爱施亲吻;勇士灭情用利剑。)--Oscar Wilde: The Ballad of Reading Gaol(句中kiss与sword意义相对;句式平行。)
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(4) It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity; it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way.(这是最美好的时期,也是最恶劣的时期;这是智慧的年代,也是愚蠢的年代;这是信仰的时代,也是怀疑的时代;这是光明的季节,也是黑暗的季节;这是希望的春天,也是绝望的寒冬;我们拥有一切,我们也一无所有;我们在走向天堂,我们也在走向地狱。)--Charles Dickens: A Tale of Two Cities(多组词词义相对;句式平行。) 作者在小说《双城记》的开头用上这一系列的对句修辞格,把那动荡不安、充满矛盾的社会现实生动地展现在读者面前,起到了开宗明义的作用。 “反衬”是一种特殊的“平行”。它特别讲究结构的对称与平衡和反义词的相互衬托,与汉语里的对偶中的“反对句”(如“少壮不努力,老大徒伤悲”)。
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3.5.2 散尾句与收尾句(Loose and Periodic Sentences)
“散尾句”与“收尾句”是相反的两种修辞格。前者作为段落和篇章的基础句式,讲究把句子的主体概念放在最前,遵循主句在前、从句在后的原则,使句子的陈述直截了当、客观真实、使句子的内容具有很高的信度;而后者是把句子的主体概念放在最后,把句子的重心调到句尾,形成“高潮”(Climax),使人不到话尾不明白用意。使用“收尾句”能够造成悬念、形成句式高峰、增添语言节奏感、避免文章的单调和乏味、 从而达到强调的目的。例如: (1) Going to her room at a late hour, he found her in what seemed to him a more composed frame of mind than at any time this difficulty had appeared, a state which surprised him a little, since he had expected to find her in tears.(他深夜去看她,发现她的心态是这场灾难之后最镇定的。这使他感到吃惊,因为他本来以为她会出现泪流满面的样子。)--by Theodore Dreiser(散尾句)
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(2) It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife. (有一条真理以被世人广泛承认,那就是:家产丰厚的单身汉所缺少的一定是妻子。)--Jane Austen: Pride and Prejudice(收尾句) (3) It comes as a great shock to discover that the country which is your birthplace and to which you owe your life and identity has not, in its whole system of reality, evolved any place for you. (如果有一天发现那生你养你的、那个你认为你是其理所当然的公民的国家,在其整个的现行体系中根本没有你的立锥之地时,你会感到何等地震惊!)--James Baldwin(收尾句) 汉语里也常见这两种句式,这一点从上面的英译汉的例句中可看得清清楚楚,所以不再举例了。
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3.5.3 修辞问句(Rhetorical Questions)
与普通的问句(期待答复)不同,“修辞问句”(不需答复)是用提问的方式给对方一个答案,即使对方从所给的信息中得出其自己的答案。修辞问句具有极强的说服力和感染力,常用于英、汉语讲演、宣传和广告之中。更具体有些的话,“修辞问句”有两种形式,其一是“提问”(自问自答,以便引人注意下文),如例(2);其二是“反诘”(故意发出无疑之问,让对方体会其含义)如例(1): (1) If winter comes, can spring be far behind? (冬天到了,春天还会远吗?)--Percy Bysshe Shelley: Ode To The West Wind
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(2) 谁说中国人不善于改变呢?每一新的事物进来,起初虽然排斥,但看到有些可靠,就自然会改变。不过并非将自己变得合于新事物,乃是将新事物变得合于自己而以。--鲁迅:《华盖集.补白》
此例中的“中国人”系指反动统治者及反动文人。鲁迅以否定形式提问,其实是说这些“中国人”是善于改变自己的面目的。鲁迅用这一个方式表达了他对这些文人投机善变的鄙视和愤怒感情,有力地讽刺了这些变色龙。
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倒装句(Inversion) “倒装句”虽然在汉语里用得比英语里少,但是的确是种重要的修辞手段。“倒装句”有两种形式。其一是完全倒装(句子中的谓语动词放到其主语之前),如例(1);其二是部分倒装(除完全倒装以外的其他有非正常语序的句中形式)如例(2)。英语中倒装句的运用是为了更好地表现语气、态度、和情绪(当然也不排除个别情况下为了句子的平衡等等语法方面的情况)。例如: (1) Black are the brooding clouds.(黑压压的是一团乌云。)--Charles Dickens (正常语序:The brooding clouds are black.) (2) Easily was a man made an infidel, but hardly might he be converted to another faith. 要把某人打成异教徒并不难;难的是怎样改变其信仰。)--T. E. Lawrence(正常语序:A man was easily made an infidel, but he might hardly be converted to another faith.)
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省略句(Ellipsis) “省略句”是指在一定的语言环境(对话或上下文)里,句子的某些词被略去不说,其目的和作用在于精练语言、使其活泼新颖、增强其趣味性。这种手法在英、汉语中都常见,其方式可分为承前省(如例(1))、蒙后省(如例(2))、对话省(如例(3))和习惯省(如例(4))四种。例如: (1) You know the feeling. It's a warm smile.[ ] A relaxed atmosphere.[ ] A lot of caring. You can be yourself.[ ] Just like home. (你懂得这种感受:温馨的微笑、轻松的气氛、周到的关怀、自由自在,就像在家里一样。) 句子的内容正好被省略了(It's)的松散句式表现得恰到好处。 (2) 我不去喊[ ],你去喊他来。([]处省略了“他来”) (3) [ ] Stop smoking.([你]不得抽烟 !)(省略了主语 “你”[You]) (4) More haste, less speed. (Proverb)(欲速度则不达。)(在成语、套语和名言中多有省略,以求深刻的寓意。这已经成了习惯。)
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综上所述,英语修辞格的产生和发展不是在真空中完成的,而是以操英语的各有关民族的政治、经济和文化的不断发展为背景的,同时也是与其他各非英语民族的语言(如汉语)和文化运作的过程中不断发展的修辞手段或修辞格互补的。在学习英语修辞格的过程中,我们必须在注意各修辞格的形式的同时,更多地重视修辞格的作用、目的和意义以及与汉语修辞格的联系和区别,从而让英语更好地为中国服务,让汉语更早地走出中国,走遍全世界,更好地促进人类社会的发展。
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[10] 中国社会科学院语言研究所. 现代汉语词典[M]. 北京: 商务印书馆, 1995.
[16] Procter, P. 朗文现代英汉双解词典[M]. 北京: 现代出版社, 1994. [17] Gillie, C. Langman Companion to English Literature. London: Langman Group Limited, 1978. [18] Morris, W. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980. [19] 曹耀萍等.英汉语辞格的形式、作用和意义[A]. 阳志清,曹志希. 话语语言学与语言教学[C].上海:交通大学出版社,2008:72-98.
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