Joseph Mallord William Turner, The Park at Petworth House, c. 1830 手動翻頁 Hand play

Frederic Edwin Church, The Heart of the Andes, 1859 Frederic Edwin Church, The Heart of the Andes, 1859. Church was part of the American Hudson River School.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Landscape art is a term that covers the depiction of natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and forests, and especially art where the main subject is a wide view, with its elements arranged into a coherent composition. In other works landscape backgrounds for figures can still form an important part of the work. Sky is almost always included in the view, and weather is often an element of the composition. Detailed landscapes as a distinct subject are not found in all artistic traditions, and develop when there is already a sophisticated tradition of representing other subjects. The two main traditions spring from Western painting and Chinese art, going back well over a thousand years in both cases. Landscape photography has been very important since the 19th century, and is covered by its own article. The word landscape is from the Dutch, landschap originally meaning a patch of cultivated ground, and then an image. The word entered the English language at the start of the 17th century, purely as a term for works of art; it was not used to describe real vistas before 1725. If the primary purpose of a picture is to depict an actual, specific place, especially including buildings prominently, it is called a topographical view. Such views, extremely common as prints, are often seen as inferior to fine art landscapes, although the distinction is not always meaningful. Caspar David Friedrich, Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, 1818. A classic image of German Romanticism

History The earliest forms of art around the world depict little that could really be called landscape, although ground-lines and sometimes indications of mountains, trees or other natural features are included. The earliest "pure landscapes" with no human figures are frescos from Minoan Greece of around 1500 BCE. Themistokles von Eckenbrecher (German, 1842–1921), View of Laerdalsoren, on the Sognefjord, 1901

Hasegawa Tōhaku, Pine Trees, one of a pair of folding screens, Japan, 1593. 156.8 × 356 cm (61.73 × 140.16 in)

Hunting scenes, especially those set in the enclosed vista of the reed beds of the Nile Delta from Ancient Egypt, can give a strong sense of place, but the emphasis is on individual plant forms and human and animal figures rather than the overall landscape setting. For a coherent depiction of a whole landscape, some rough system of perspective, or scaling for distance, is needed, and this seems from literary evidence to have first been developed in Ancient Greece in the Hellenistic period, although no large-scale examples survive. More ancient Roman landscapes survive, from the 1st century BCE onwards, especially frescos of landscapes decorating rooms that have been preserved at Pompeii, Herculaneum and elsewhere, and mosaics. The Chinese ink painting tradition of shan shui ("mountain-water"), or "pure" landscape, in which the only sign of human life is usually a sage, or a glimpse of his hut, uses sophisticated landscape backgrounds to figure subjects, and landscape art of this period retains a classic and much-imitated status within the Chinese tradition. Titian, La Vierge au Lapin à la Loupe (The Virgin of the Rabbit), 1530, Louvre, Paris. Idealized Italianate landscape background

Both the Roman and Chinese traditions typically show grand panoramas of imaginary landscapes, generally backed with a range of spectacular mountains – in China often with waterfalls and in Rome often including sea, lakes or rivers. These were frequently used, as in the example illustrated, to bridge the gap between a foreground scene with figures and a distant panoramic vista, a persistent problem for landscape artists. The Chinese style generally showed only a distant view, or used dead ground or mist to avoid that difficulty. A major contrast between landscape painting in the West and East Asia has been that while in the West until the 19th century it occupied a low position in the accepted hierarchy of genres, in East Asia the classic Chinese mountain-water ink painting was traditionally the most prestigious form of visual art. Claude Lorrain, Ascanius Shooting the Stag of Sylvia, 1682. The landscape as history painting

Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, c Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, c. 1867, Ville d’Avray National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC.. Barbizon school Aesthetic theories in both regions gave the highest status to the works seen to require the most imagination from the artist. In the West this was history painting, but in East Asia it was the imaginary landscape, where the most famous practitioners were, at least in theory, amateur , including several Emperors of both China and Japan. They were often also poets whose lines and images illustrated each other. However in the West, history painting came to require an extensive landscape background where appropriate, so the theory did not entirely work against the development of landscape painting – for several centuries landscapes were regularly promoted to the status of history painting by the addition of small figures to make a narrative scene, typically religious or mythological.

Western tradition In early Western medieval art interest in landscape disappears almost entirely, kept alive only in copies of Late Antique works such as the Utrecht Psalter; the last reworking of this source, in an early Gothic version, reduces the previously extensive landscapes to a few trees filling gaps in the composition, with no sense of overall space. John Constable, 1821, The Hay Wain. Romanticism

A revival in interest in nature initially mainly manifested itself in depictions of small gardens such as the Hortus Conclusus or those in millefleur tapestries. The frescos of figures at work or play in front of a background of dense trees in the Palace of the Popes, Avignon are probably a unique survival of what was a common subject. Several frescos of gardens have survived from Roman houses like the Villa of Livia. During the 14th century Giotto di Bondone and his followers began to acknowledge nature in their work, increasingly introducing elements of the landscape as the background setting for the action of the figures in their paintings. Early in the 15th century, landscape painting was established as a genre in Europe, as a setting for human activity, often expressed in a religious subject, such as the themes of the Rest on the Flight into Egypt, the Journey of the Magi, or Saint Jerome in the Desert. Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Night, 1889, The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Post-Impressionism

Luxury illuminated manuscripts were very important in the early development of landscape, especially series of the Labours of the Months such as those in the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, which conventionally showed small genre figures in increasingly large landscape settings. A particular advance is shown in the less well-known Turin-Milan Hours, now largely destroyed by fire, whose developments were reflected in Early Netherlandish painting for the rest of the century. The artist known as "Hand G", probably one of the Van Eyck brothers, was especially successful in reproducing effects of light and in a natural-seeming progression from the foreground to the distant view. This was something other artists were to find difficult for a century or more, often solving the problem by showing a landscape background from over the top of a parapet or window-sill, as if from a considerable height. Paul Cézanne, Mont Sainte-Victoire, 1882-1885, Metropolitan Museum of Art. Post-Impressionism

Camille Pissarro, Lordship Lane Station, c. 1870. Impressionism

Landscape backgrounds for various types of painting became increasingly prominent and skilful during the century. The period around the end of the 15th century saw pure landscape drawings and watercolours from Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Fra Bartolomeo and others, but pure landscape subjects in painting and printmaking, still small, were first produced by Albrecht Altdorfer and others of the German Danube School in the early 16th century. At the same time Joachim Patinir in the Netherlands developed a style of panoramic landscapes with a high aerial viewpoint that remained influential for a century, being used, for example, by Pieter Brueghel the Elder. The Italian development of a thorough system of graphical perspective was now known all over Europe, which allowed large and complex views to be painted very effectively. Landscapes were idealized, mostly reflecting a pastoral ideal drawn from classical poetry which was first fully expressed by Giorgione and the young Titian, and remained associated above all with hilly wooded Italian landscape, which was depicted by artists from Northern Europe who had never visited Italy, just as plain-dwelling literati in China and Japan painted vertiginous mountains. Though often young artists were encouraged to visit Italy to experience Italian light, many Northern European artists could make their living selling Italianate landscapes without ever bothering to make the trip. Indeed, certain styles were so popular that they became formulas that could be copied again and again. The popularity of exotic landscape scenes can be seen in the success of the painter Frans Post, who spent the rest of his life painting Brazilian landscapes after a trip there in 1636-1644. Other painters who never crossed the Alps could make money selling Rhineland landscapes, and still others for constructing fantasy scenes for a particular commission such as Cornelis de Man's view of Smeerenburg in 1639. AMONG TREES I DREAM

Compositional formulae using elements like the repoussoir were evolved which remain influential in modern photography and painting, notably by Poussin and Claude Lorrain, both French artists living in 17th century Rome and painting largely classical subject-matter, or Biblical scenes set in the same landscapes. Unlike their Dutch contemporaries, Italian and French landscape artists still most often wanted to keep their classification within the hierarchy of genres as history painting by including small figures to represent a scene from classical mythology or the Bible. Salvator Rosa gave picturesque excitement to his landscapes by showing wilder Southern Italian country, often populated by banditi. The Dutch Golden Age painting of the 17th century saw the dramatic growth of landscape painting, in which many artists specialized, and the development of extremely subtle realist techniques for depicting light and weather. an autumn scene on Horse Thief road near Dubois, Wyoming.

There are different styles and periods, and sub-genres of marine and animal painting, as well as a distinct style of Italianate landscape. Most Dutch landscapes were relatively small, but landscapes in Flemish Baroque painting, still usually peopled, were often very large, above all in the series of works that Peter Paul Rubens painted for his own houses. The Dutch tended to make smaller paintings for smaller houses. Some Dutch landscape specialties named in period inventories include the Batalje, or battle-scene;[ the Maneschijntje, or moonlight scene; the Bosjes, or woodland scene; the Boederijtje, or farm scene, and the Dorpje or village scene. Philips Koninck, (1619-1688, Amsterdam)

Though not named at the time as a specific genre, the popularity of Roman ruins inspired many Dutch landscape painters of the period to paint the ruins of their own region, such as monasteries and churches ruined after the Beeldenstorm. The popularity of landscapes in the Netherlands was in part a reflection of the virtual disappearance of religious painting in a Calvinist society, and the decline of religious painting in the 18th and 19th centuries all over Europe combined with Romanticism to give landscapes a much greater and more prestigious place in 19th-century art than they had assumed before. In England, landscapes had initially been mostly backgrounds to portraits, typically suggesting the parks or estates of a landowner, though mostly painted in London by an artist who had never visited his sitter's rolling acres; the English tradition was founded by Anthony van Dyck and other mostly Flemish artists working in England. In the 18th century, watercolour painting, mostly of landscapes, became an English speciality, with both a buoyant market for professional works, and a large number of amateur painters, many following the popular systems found in the books of Alexander Cozens and others. By the beginning of the 19th century the English artists with the highest modern reputations were mostly dedicated landscapists, showing the wide range of Romantic interpretations of the English landscape found in the works of John Constable, J.M.W. Turner and Samuel Palmer. However all these had difficulty establishing themselves in the contemporary art market, which still preferred history paintings and portraits. The German Caspar David Friedrich had a distinctive style, influenced by his Danish training, where a distinct national style, drawing on the Dutch 17th-century example, had developed. French painters were slower to develop landscape painting, but from about the 1830s Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot and other painters in the Barbizon School established a French landscape tradition that would become the most influential in Europe for a century, with the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists for the first time making landscape painting the main source of general stylistic innovation across all types of painting. This 11x14" oil painting on hardboard depicts a beautiful red Michigan barn in the snow

Dramatic Crater Landscape Art Properties Art size: 1600 x 702

In Europe, as John Ruskin said, and Sir Kenneth Clark confirmed, landscape painting was the "chief artistic creation of the nineteenth century", and "the dominant art", with the result that in the following period people were "apt to assume that the appreciation of natural beauty and the painting of landscape is a normal and enduring part of our spiritual activity" In Clark's analysis, underlying European ways to convert the complexity of landscape to an idea were four fundamental approaches: the acceptance of descriptive symbols, a curiosity about the facts of nature, the creation of fantasy to allay deep-rooted fears of nature, and the belief in a Golden Age of harmony and order, which might be retrieved. The nationalism of the new United Provinces had been a factor in the popularity of Dutch 17th-century landscape painting and in the 19th century, as other nations attempted to develop distinctive national schools of painting, the attempt to express the special nature of the landscape of the homeland became a general tendency. In Russia, as in America, the gigantic size of paintings was itself a nationalist statement. In the United States, the Hudson River School, prominent in the middle to late 19th century, is probably the best-known native development in landscape art. These painters created works of mammoth scale that attempted to capture the epic scope of the landscapes that inspired them. The work of Thomas Cole, the school's generally acknowledged founder, has much in common with the philosophical ideals of European landscape paintings — a kind of secular faith in the spiritual benefits to be gained from the contemplation of natural beauty. acrylic on canvas (gallery wrap), 2009, Maxim Grunin

Some of the later Hudson River School artists, such as Albert Bierstadt, created less comforting works that placed a greater emphasis (with a great deal of Romantic exaggeration) on the raw, even terrifying power of nature. The best examples of Canadian landscape art can be found in the works of the Group of Seven, prominent in the 1920s. Although certainly less dominant in the period after World War I, many significant artists still painted landscapes in the wide variety of styles exemplified by Neil Welliver, Alex Katz, Milton Avery, Peter Doig, Andrew Wyeth, David Hockney and Sidney Nolan.

East Asian tradition China Landscape painting has been called "China's greatest contribution to the art of the world", and owes its special character to the Taoist (Daoist) tradition in Chinese culture. There are increasingly sophisticated landscape backgrounds to figure subjects showing hunting, farming or animals from the Han dynasty onwards, with surviving examples mostly in stone or clay reliefs from tombs, which are presumed to follow the prevailing styles in painting, no doubt without capturing the full effect of the original paintings. The exact status of the later copies of reputed works by famous painters (many of whom are recorded in literature) before the 10th century is unclear. One example is a famous 8th century painting from the Imperial collection, The Emperor Ming Huang traveling in Shu, now housed in the National Palace Museum in Taipei. This shows the entourage riding through vertiginous mountains of the type typical of later paintings, but is in full colour "producing an overall pattern that is almost Persian", in what was evidently a popular and fashionable court style. The decisive shift to a monochrome landscape style, almost devoid of figures, is attributed to Wang Wei (699-759), also famous as a poet; mostly only copies of his works survive. From the 10th century onwards an increasing number of original paintings survive, and the best works of the Song Dynasty (960-1279) Southern School remain among the most highly regarded in what has been an uninterrupted tradition to the present day. Chinese convention valued the paintings of the amateur scholar-gentleman, often a poet as well, over those produced by professionals, though the situation was more complex than that.[ If they include any figures, they are very often such persons, or sages, contemplating the mountains. Famous works have accumulated numbers of red "appreciation seals", and often poems added by later owners - the Qianlong Emperor (1711–1799) was a prolific adder of his own poems, following earlier Emperors. Li Kan, Bamboos and Rock c. 1300 AD., China

The shan shui tradition was never intended to represent actual locations, even when named after them, as in the convention of the Eight Views. A different style, produced by workshops of professional court artists, painted official views of Imperial tours and ceremonies, with the primary emphasis on highly detailed scenes of crowded cities and grand ceremonials from a high viewpoint. These were painted on scrolls of enormous length in bright colour. Chinese sculpture also achieves the difficult feat of creating effective landscapes in three dimensions. There is a long tradition of the appreciation of "viewing stones" - naturally formed boulders, typically limestone from the banks of mountain rivers that has been eroded into fantastic shapes, were transported to the courtyards and gardens of the literati. Tao Chi, late 17th century China

Probably associated with these is the tradition of carving much smaller boulders of jade or some other semi-precious stone into the shape of a mountain, including tiny figures of monks or sages. Chinese gardens also developed a highly sophisticated aesthetic much earlier than those in the West; the karensansui or Japanese dry garden of Zen Buddhism takes the garden even closer to being a work of sculpture, representing a highly abstracted landscape. Tang Yin, A Fisher in Autumn, 1523 AD., China

Four from a set of sixteen sliding room partitions made for a 16th century Japanese abbot. Typically for later Japanese landscapes, the main focus is on a feature in the foreground Japan Japanese art initially adapted Chinese styles to reflect their interest in narrative themes in art, with scenes set in landscapes mixing with those showing palace or city scenes using the same high view point, cutting away roofs as necessary. These appeared in the very long yamato-e scrolls of scenes illustrating the Tale of Genji and other subjects, mostly from the 12th and 13th centuries. The concept of the gentleman-amateur painter had little resonance in feudal Japan, where artists were generally professionals with a strong bond to their master and his school, rather than the classic artists from the distant past, from which Chinese painters tended to draw their inspiration. Painting was initially fully coloured, often brightly so, and the landscape never overwhelms the figures who are often rather over-sized.

The Bridge at Ubi a famous screen composition, found in many 16th or 17th century versions, showing the colourful abstracted style of the professional painters. Yamato-e style of Japanese painting.

A scene from the Biography of the Priest Ippen yamato-e scroll, 1299

The scene illustrated at right is from a scroll that in full measures 37.8 cm x 802.0 cm, for only one of twelve scrolls illustrating the life of a Buddhist monk; like their Western counterparts, monasteries and temples commissioned many such works, and these have had a better chance of survival than courtly equivalents. Even rarer are survivals of landscape byōbu folding screens and hanging scrolls, which seem to have common in court circles - the Tale of Genji has an episode where members of the court produce the best paintings from their collections for a competition. These were closer to Chinese shan shui, but still fully coloured. Many more pure landscape subjects survive from the 15th century onwards; several key artists are Zen Buddhist clergy, and worked in a monochrome style with greater emphasis on brush strokes in the Chinese manner. Some schools adopted a less refined style, with smaller views giving greater emphasis to the foreground. A type of image that had an enduring appeal for Japanese artists, and came to be called the "Japanese style", is in fact first found in China. This combines one or more large birds, animals or trees in the foreground, typically to one side in a horizontal composition, with a wider landscape beyond, often only covering portions of the background. Later versions of this style often dispensed with a landscape background altogether. The ukiyo-e style that developed from the 16th century onwards, first in painting and then in coloured woodblock prints that were cheap and widely available, initially concentrated on the human figure, individually and in groups. But from the late 18th century landscape ukiyo-e developed under Hokusai and Hiroshige to become much the best known type of Japanese landscape art.[ Tenshō Shūbun, a Zen Buddhist monk, an early figure in the revival of Chinese styles in Japan. Reading in a Bamboo Grove, 1446, Japan

Kanō Masanobu, 15th century founder of the Kanō school, which dominated Japanese brush painting until the 19th century, Zhou Maoshu Appreciating Lotuses, hanging scroll

Techniques Most early landscapes are clearly imaginary, although from very early on townscape views are clearly intended to represent actual cities, with varying degrees of accuracy. Various techniques were used to simulate the randomness of natural forms in invented compositions: the medieval advice of Cennino Cennini to copy ragged crags from small rough rocks was apparently followed by both Poussin and Thomas Gainsborough, while Degas copied cloud forms from a crumpled handkerchief held up against the light. The system of Alexander Cozens used random ink blots to give the basic shape of an invented landscape, to be elaborated by the artist. The distinctive background view across Lake Geneva to the Le Môle peak in The Miraculous Draught of Fishes by Konrad Witz (1444) is often cited as the first Western rural landscape to show a specific scene.[43] The landscape studies by Dürer clearly represent actual scenes, which can be identified in many cases, and were at least partly made on the spot; the drawings by Fra Bartolomeo also seem clearly sketched from nature. Dürer's finished works seem generally to use invented landscapes, although the spectacular bird's-eye view in his engraving Nemesis shows an actual view in the Alps, with additional elements. Several landscapists are known to have made drawings and watercolour sketches from nature, but the evidence for early oil painting being done outside is limited. The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood made special efforts in this direction, but it was not until the introduction of ready-mixed oil paints in tubes in the 1870s, followed by the portable "box easel", that painting en plein air became widely practiced. Albrecht Altdorfer (c.1480-1538), Danube landscape near Regensburg c. 1528, one of the earliest Western pure landscapes. He was the leader of the Danube School in southern Germany

A curtain of mountains at the back of the landscape is standard in wide Roman views and even more so in Chinese landscapes. Relatively little space is given to the sky in early works in either tradition; the Chinese often used mist or clouds between mountains, and also sometimes show clouds in the sky far earlier than Western artists, who initially mainly use clouds as supports or covers for divine figures or heaven. Both panel paintings and miniatures in manuscripts usually had a patterned or gold "sky" or background above the horizon until about 1400, but frescos by Giotto and other Italian artists had long shown plain blue skies. The single surviving altarpiece from Melchior Broederlam, completed for Champmol in 1399, has a gold sky populated not only by God and angels, but also a flying bird. A coastal scene in the Turin-Milan Hours has a sky overcast with carefully observed clouds. In woodcuts a large blank space can cause the paper to sag during printing, so Dürer and other artists often include clouds or squiggles representing birds to avoid this. The monochrome Chinese tradition has used ink on silk or paper since its inception, with a great emphasis on the individual brushstroke to define the ts'un or "wrinkles" in mountain-sides, and the other features of the landscape. Western watercolour is a more tonal medium, even with underdrawing visible. El Greco, View of Toledo c. 1596–1600, oil on canvas, 47.75 × 42.75 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, is one of the two surviving landscapes of Toledo painted by him. The aggressive paint handling in the sky predicts 20th century Expressionism.

Henri Rousseau, The Dream, 1910, Museum of Modern Art, New York

An 18th century Korean version of the Chinese literati style by Jeong Seon who was unusual in often painting landscapes from life

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Naked Playing People, 1910 Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Naked Playing People, 1910. Die Brücke, an Expressionist group active after 1905.

西洋風景畫賞析 By楊永源 風景與風景畫 西洋的風景畫作為獨立的畫料，成立的時間並不很早。但是早在古埃及、古希臘和古羅馬時期遺留下來的藝術作品和建築的遺跡，都出現過以風景作為人物活動背景的圖畫。這可說人類將自己與大自然之間的關係的某種體驗的表現。將大自然縮小到一定尺寸的畫面，而不失其前後大小的關係，並不是一件容易的事，它必須依靠視覺經驗和心手合一的能力，以及了解使用表現符號的語言結構上的問題。易言之，人類將視覺經驗，逐漸地建立不同的表現方式，其中所謂的透視法，便是一種將空間裡的物體作一種安排，使所有的物象合乎秩序，這種表現系統下的物象作為符號所傳達的訊息，能夠被當時的社會所理解而達到傳播視覺訊息便建立了溝通。在我們今天看來，古代的 “風景”畫或許使用了較樸拙的表現法，並不符合我們今天使用的透視法，但它們仍然成功地在當時的社會溝通其意義，這可說人類能作某種程度的 “寫實”(realism)。 Edward Hopper, Road in Maine, 1914. Associated with American realism and members of the Ashcan School.

Joachim Patinir (1480-1524), Charon crossing the Styx, 1515-1524, oil on wood, Prado. He was a Flemish Northern Renaissance history and landscape painter, influenced by Hieronymous Bosch

Scenery painter Schlosspark Charlottenburg berlin

比方，埃及人的浮雕，水池的四週種滿一排樹，它們長的方向都是各從池中心放射開來。這是很概念式的寫實：每棵樹與池子的相互關係與每棵樹彼此所在的位子關係都表示得很清楚，但這種表現方式卻不符合我們今天表現的方式。 文藝復興早期，風景作為宗教畫、人物畫的背景十分普通，特別是透視法在十五世紀逐漸地被建立成一個成熟的系統後，風景也被這種系統統合在其中，而使人物、建築、風景都能建立在一種秩序之下。 空氣遠近法的發明，將風景往幻覺(illusion)空間的表現推向更高的層次。使畫面看起來「栩栩如生」，或者，能以畫面表現深意，或以詩表現畫之意象(詩如是，畫亦然 ut pictora poesis)的詩畫姊妹藝術的概念，成為文藝理論的重要論述。 Dragon Boats in KaoHsiung landscape painting. 台灣畫家

文藝復興時期的藝術家在這種理論的實踐上，有傑出的成就。以達文奇的蒙娜麗莎的背景的風景看來，它已是傑出的風景的表現。威尼斯畫家吉奧喬尼(Geogeone)的「暴風雨」畫面中的大自然的神秘氣氛，也表現得非常成功。雖然如此，風景在這些畫裡扮演的份量，終究不如主題所標的的人物來得重要。 理想的風景畫： 十七世紀法國畫家洛翰(Claude Lorrain)可說是最早以風景作為題材的畫家，它一生大部份居住在義大利:以羅馬郊區的鄉村風景，和古代的廢墟組合成一種稱為田園風景(pastoral)的題材。

洛翰的作法是到大自然中去搜羅美的形象，和足以組合成某種意義的畫面的廢墟，而後將之結合在一起，作為牧羊人或神話人物的舞台。嚴格地說來洛翰的風景畫已不是純粹人物的背景，甚至可以說，人物是被他用來作為點景(embellishment)之用。他特別注意到光線的要素，因此在畫面中，特別的清澄的天空與少許蜿曲的樹身和枝葉，再配以羅馬廢墟，很明顯是建立義大利式的風景。在十八、九世紀之間，廣為英國文學和藝術家所喜愛，對英國的風景畫和園林理論，有深刻的影響。 Claude Lorrain的作品之一

Nicola Poussin 作品

與洛翰同時代的畫家普桑(Nicola Poussin)是另外一種風景典型的代表，他的風景配合著畫面人物故事的悲壯或雄渾性格，而表現出光影強烈變化;在人物的肢體所表現的驚懼可怖之感的烘托下，成為崇高、雄渾(Sublime)的類型。普桑的風景是一種英雄式(Heroic)的風景。在<蛇追逐一個人>的畫中，普桑以人的肢體和表情傳達可怖的效果，中景以後的山水和建築物，都安排在一種極端精細計算過的空間，顯然風景畫是一種較大的布景，來襯托前方人物的戲劇性。藝術史家認為，普桑可能得自文藝復興的花園傳統;花園的設計就像個舞台，容納劇戲在園中上演，而花園則是十足的「風景」，當這種「側面性格」的風景逐漸演變成正面性格時，風景的份量變得比較重要，也就逐漸有普桑的風景畫的樣式。 上述洛翰和普桑的風景，都是建立理想的而非表現真實(reality)的基礎之上。Clark將這種風景可以稱為Ideal Landscape，明顯地區別它與十八世紀荷蘭風景畫的風格。 十七世紀荷蘭風景畫 與理想的風景相較，十七世紀的荷蘭風景代表現實的風景，它可能較義大利式的風景更直接描寫對象物。風景畫的流行可能與荷蘭的地理環境有關。不像是法國或英國的貴族世襲和享有領地，人民可以在某些程度內依附領主為其工作而獲得溫飽。荷蘭因為地勢低平的新埔新生地，沒有崇山峻嶺的天然屏障，移民來自四面八方，它們不屬於任何郡主，反而是自力更生的個人，生存變成為必須奮力爭取的事。為了塑造來自四面八方的人們的集體社會意識，或許低平的地平線上的天空與白雲是他們共同的視覺經驗。白雲朵朵浮遊天際，和映照著水面的小丘、沙渚、成為現實風景取材的主要對象。 Nicola Poussin 作品

S. van Ruysdael的 River Landscape 十七世紀的荷蘭，風景畫比起其它畫科更被收藏者喜愛，各種階級的人士肖象畫的背景都喜歡以風景畫為背景。1610至1619年間風景從佔畫科比例由25.6%到1670-79年間的41%。在某些地區，農夫百分之百擁有他們耕種的土地，1514年左右，荷蘭有百分之四十二的農夫擁有自己耕種的土地。土地是communally的商業資產和個人財富。低平的沙丘和運河流上的行船母題，是荷蘭風景經濟的象徵;與政治的象徵前後出現於1610至十七世紀末葉之間。 S. van Ruysdael的 River Landscape with Ferry(1649)畫面出現牛羊和運河上的船隻，經濟的象徵十分明顯。 只要我們比對Albert Cuyp的River Sunset(35×53cm)風景上的牧羊人形象，便可知荷蘭風景畫的現實主義性格。在此畫中，廣闊的水域無疑是商業賴以進行的交通命脈，而山丘上的羊群則是財富的象徵。全畫沒有一處是沒有表現出經濟活動的寫照。

Albert Cuyp 作品 尤其山丘上的牧羊人形象，通俗而又貼近現實生活;傳統基督教文本中，牧羊人的形象是有優雅的立姿，或將木仗佇在胸前，托腮沉思。 這件荷蘭風景畫上的牧羊人卻將仗子抬放在肩膀上，與鄰人交談起來。而風景本身也不是神奇的或詩情畫意的，顯然不是義大利式理想風景的樣子。 荷蘭風景畫或許基於地利之便，對十八、十九世紀英國水彩畫，有很重要的影響。特別是Norwich School的畫家。它低平的構圖形式，也曾給Constable帶來一定的影響。

風景畫與Topography 風景畫一般說來，難免有畫家的品味和傳統的習癖摻雜在其表現之中，而難以析辯何者是風景畫描繪的確切地點。十七世紀荷蘭風景畫即有這種描繪地點的可辨認性。 一種專為地主或某此繪畫贊助者紀錄田產莊園的表現方式稱為Topography在十七、十八世紀也頗為流行。它是一種小畫幅，採用水性顏料繪製、精密描寫對象景物的畫。在十八世紀topography成熟之前，一種夾帶詩與風景的特有畫體稱為prospect(風景詩畫)流行於詩人和畫家之間，它讚美的景物，依序鋪陳開來，詩竟有如畫面一般，朗朗上口，容易配合宣傳愛國或鄉土意識。 J. M.W. Turner 作品

小畫幅的水彩topography頗受地主喜愛，因為地主可以將土地財物畫下來懸掛在室內，彰顯擁有土地的滿足感。十八、十九世紀知名的英國水彩畫家，年輕時也大多從事過topography的繪畫工作，從中習得不少寫生的技巧，和建立未來藝術生涯的人脈關係，J. M.W. Turner即是有名的例子，他早年為人作topography，練就了一手好技巧，也結交了不少繪畫的買者。然而，無可否認的，Topography因必須忠於物貌與地貌，終究不能有太多的理想風景般的處理空間，它的地位上，終究無法與油畫風景來得令人矚目。 J. M.W. Turner 作品

風景畫與經濟生產 收割圖的宗教寓意 野地和荒蕪之地的收割者，可能是這類收成畫的另外一種文本。威史拓 (Richard Westall, 1765-1836) 的畫便是這種典型。 在Westall的作品＜收成田裡的暴風雨＞（A Storm in Harvest）(1796) 中，收割的農人狀似一家老少，在暴風雨來前，避身樹下，神情肅穆的注視遠方閃電和狂風捲起的枝葉。暴風雨帶來恐怖之感。被刻意安排同台出現的一家老少，與十九世紀後半葉農事主題畫中，由父母親及小孩組成的年輕家庭結構的工作隊伍，有顯著的不同。宗教上以出生到終老的時間序列展開，等待天使降臨收割。而這張A Storm in Harvest中的 “收割” (reaping) 於是帶有雙重的意思：田地裡的農事活動和人生終點神的使徒的召喚。 Westall的作品＜收成田裡的暴風雨＞ （A Storm in Harvest）

Westall這張A Storm in Harvest的人物與畫面氣氛，來自對於狂風與強光，的敬畏 (awe)，或者對閃電產生可忍受的恐懼 (agreeable horror) ，產生雄渾的（sublime）審美效果。這類充滿聲光雷電效果的繪畫，是聖經啟示錄式的繪畫(apocalyptic subjects)； 聖經啟示錄的繪畫，被援引在美學類型上是雄渾、崇高 (sublime) 的。博克（Edmund Burke）在A Philosophical Enquriy into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful曾道： 「強光…銷融所有的物體，好似黑暗之效果；注視太陽片刻，它留下二個黑點飛舞眼前，此時亮暗二極，似可視為同一，二者雖是相對之特質卻同為製造雄渾崇高(sublime)…」。 Burke 之言，極亮造成的目眩，其實形同極暗，是使人看不著外物的。對照Burke 的理論，可以發現Westall 在 ＜收成田裡的暴風雨＞ 中亦畫中亦採用強烈的光影變化，應也是雄渾之美感的追尋；只不過Burke的雄渾崇高理論，有極為繁複壯闊的內涵。Burke主張造成雄渾之感的外在條件，應該是可怖、幽暗不明晰(obscurity)、力量(power)、巨大的體積 (vastness)、冥漠無際 (infinity)…等條件造成。 Westall 這張畫，選擇閃電強光的效果，與荒郊野地的環境，似乎是造成雄偉最好的結果。Westall的 ＜收成田裡的暴風雨＞ 不但內容上與聖經之內容收割有密切關係；美感上亦與雄渾崇高有關。而繪畫形式上，Westall則採用的是當時頗受歡迎的歷史人物畫的宏偉風格。 在聖經中，神賜予大地滋長、成長，以及收成，然而上帝亦像閃電一樣，可以一夕之間以巨大無比的力量，燒毀田裡的作物。這寓意人必須生而敬謹從事，才不至於遭受神威的處罰。或許Westall的＜收成田裡的暴風雨＞即有此訓誡之意，以喚起觀畫者對人生種種作為的反省，和道德上的砥礪。 Westall's The Sword of Damocles, 1812

George Stubbs 作品

George Stubbs 作品 農業主題風景畫：擁有、財富、秩序，Brugel, Gainsborough, Stubbs的風景畫 比起其他題材，農業主題風景畫在數量上固然並不多見，但其表現聖經文本中有關收成和拾穗的題材，和農事活動在文學作品裡的詩/畫、社會現實之關係，而具有跨領域研究之潛在價值；就藝術史而言，是風景畫研究領域裡值得研究的主題。 在美學與風景理論的層面上，農業主題風景畫與十九世紀浪漫主義的風景畫，在內涵上有所差別，在繪畫風格上也有區分。農業主題以農事活動之內容，作為畫的標題；以「收成」(harvest)、「割曬牧草」(haymaking)、拾穗(gleaning) …等這一類的農事活動的內容作為畫的標題，反而比通稱的風景畫，更能具體地傳達圖畫的內涵。 十八世紀上半葉的農業風俗畫（agriculture genre）背景之中的農村或村民母題之出現，象徵著地主和仕紳理想中的和諧的社會階級秩序。此時風景畫是一種帶有描寫階級和諧、人人各有所司的勸誡式的風景詩畫。 George Stubbs 作品

史達伯斯(George Stubbs) (1724-1806)收割者(Reapers)（1795）

Gainsborough所畫的肖像風景 ＜安卓儒夫婦＞ （Mr. And Mrs. Robert Andrews）

George Stubbs 作品

在史達伯斯(George Stubbs) (1724-1806)收割者(Reapers)（1795）中，人物過份整潔的衣飾，和富有敘事性效果的姿態，使人質疑畫中人物是否農工的身份。這樣的符號傳達出來的，即使他們是農工也是樣板的宣傳畫一般，對特定的人服務；而這個人便是騎在馬背上的仕紳。他是地主也是村莊的政治社會的中心人物；在為其耕田作稼後，農工可以獲得應有的安頓。因此這樣的圖像傳達的是擁有財富和主宰社會階級秩序的企圖。和諧的階級關係是這閱讀幅畫很重要的一個線索。就在畫面遠方正中央，有一小部分教堂的尖頂形狀，象徵村莊的宗教信仰中心。這固然是英國自十七世紀以來，風景畫詩所常延用的風景的層次的意象，也是高一層次之有關秩序的象徵。 Gainsborough所畫的肖像風景 ＜安卓儒夫婦＞ （Mr. And Mrs. Robert Andrews）裡 ，田產主人安卓儒與其妻子坐在象徵新時代工業革命之產品 “鑄鐵” 椅子上，背景有豐收的穀物田，和圍籬畜牧的牲口。畫裡的田野，符合農業經濟學家極力鼓吹圍籬畜牧，以增加生產和確保農民財富的理想。顯然這麼不尋常──違反詩情畫意的美感――的風景，意在表達畫中人物可以接受工業革命的效應，和認同 “殖利之為美” 的態度。此種為了表現秩序的、擁有的內涵，而採取理智的畫面結構，或許用十六世紀布魯格爾（Pieter Bruegel）的 ＜收割者＞ (The Harvesters) (1565-66) 作個對照可以更為清楚。＜收割者＞是售予銀行家容格林科 (Niclaes Jongelinck) 的六幅畫十二月令圖之中的一幅。社會結構的構築，表現在隱於樹後古堡和遠方村落和教堂，和在樹陰下用餐及小睡片刻的農工。 農事和農工伴隨四季時間永恆輪迴。觀者可以預期到，政治歷程與社會結構從而持續不斷，而這持續性，是半封建經濟社會結構所賴以維繫。這亦解釋，為何自中世紀手抄書畫以來，十二月令和四季圖一直為歐洲貴族所喜愛的原因。 George Stubbs 作品

＜收割者＞所傳達的訊息，在於表明：這是關鍵的收割季節，在此時，地主所賴以過冬和來年的糧草已聚斂完好；時間是如此重要，因為稍有延誤收割，一場秋雨可將毀了穀物。 擅長於風俗畫的Bruegel，將＜收割者＞的畫面裡正在用餐和疲憊的農工，置於前景，並有一二位看向觀畫者的畫面外來，而田中仍有一二位正在收割。何以農工沒有一起行動？由收割到午餐到小睡，Bruegel或許將時間的過去、現在、未來又交代了一次。 布魯格爾（Pieter Bruegel）的 ＜收割者＞ (The Harvesters) (1565-66)

Pieter Bruegel 的作品

他把統整視覺秩序的功能交給了幾個區塊形式的麥田，而將暗示社會結構與階級的功能，交給古堡、教堂、村落和鄙俗的農工(peasant)，形成內在的自主。如此對照下，Stubbs與Gainsborough的畫面中，利用人物與其財富，造成視覺秩序感所象徵的政治與社會性，便更清晰可尋。 布魯格爾（Pieter Bruegel）的 作品

Peter de Wint的 The Cornfield（1815）

拾穗的主題：基督教慈善精神與社會現實 拾穗是農業風景畫最為普遍的題材。「拾穗」出自基督教，敘述貞潔婦人Ruth陪婆家母親返回以色列並以拾穗餬口的事蹟。基督教的人道主義亦告誡富有之地主，應於收成時，遺留一些零落的麥穗，供貧苦人家撿拾。在基督文化的社會中，此已是悠久的傳統。大家所熟悉的法國寫實主義畫家米勒(F. Millet) 的拾穗在和諧的色彩，平和的人物姿態下，傳達基督教的慈善的教喻：婦人當捨師穀物與窮人撿拾。可惜工業革命之後英國某些地區農村凋斃，農民暴動時有所聞，勞資關係並不和諧。在真實世界中，拾穗反應十九世紀英國農工家庭感傷的生活的一面。

De Wint 的畫有諷刺今不如古的意涵。1750-1850年間，在英國東南部各郡，婦女所拾得的穀穗所孳生出來的經濟效益，大約在全年勞工家庭收入的百分之五至十三之間。足見拾穗對農工家庭之重要性。然而隨著1850年代，收割機及自動束穀機普及化地使用於收割季節，拾穗工作受到某些程度的不利影響。地主對於農工在收割麥穀時，是否蓄意遺漏零散的穀穗在地上而留給婦孺檢拾，時有懷疑。有時地主甚至多花薪資給農工，鼓勵他們更徹底的收捆麥穀；相對地，穀物產地的教會人士，也設法勸告地主多施捨一些，讓窮人下田拾穗。這個複雜的社會關係，至少反應出拾穗是出於經濟上的需要，不管它有多少基督教的人文關懷，以及畫家如何美化它。

李常生 Eddie Lee Friday, March 02, 2012 From Internet and Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 部分文字：西洋風景畫賞析 作者：陳永源 leechangsheng5555@gmail.com