Theories and Models of Creativity 1. Examples (1) Mozart (2) Tchaikovsky (3) Molly

2. Individuals who have created music, told stories, solved problems, and dreamed dreams have probably been the objects of curiosity and wonder from the earliest times. 3. From the beginnings of recorded history, scholars have speculated about the source of creativity, how it works, and how individuals identified as creative differ from others.

4. Studies, theories, and models of creativity usually center on three areas: (1) Characteristics of the creative person —They investigate personal characteristics, family dynamics, or essential abilities of individuals who have been identified as creative. (2) The creative process — They examine the processes by which individuals generate creative ideas.

(3) The creative product — They answer such questions as what makes something creative or how creative ideas are different from other ideas. 5. Just as theorists have emphasized different aspects of creativity, they also have examined it through different lenses. 6. Cultures across the world today vary in the types of creativity that are valued and the means used to displayed them.

Four Ps of Creativity 1 歷程 (process) 分析產生創意的過程與階段 2 個人 (person) 探討高創造力者應具備的人格特質 3 產品 (product) 界定創造性產品的標準 4 環境 (place/press) 探討環境對創造力發展的影響 * 最近學者多主張從多向度及動態發展的觀點來探討創造力；此一觀點強調是強調的是多重因素間的互動。

The Creative Process 1. Probably the most common source for models of the creative process can be found in the experiences of individuals who have developed creative ideas or products. 2. It also is likely that most scholars have been influenced by their own experiences in generating new and appropriate ideas. 3. Traditional models of creativity tend to be based on descriptions of experienced creativity, as seen through the lens of the creator.

Dewey’s Model of Problem Solving Dewey described the process of problem solving in five logical steps: a. A difficulty is felt. b. The difficulty is located and defined. c. Possible solutions are considered. d. Consequences of these solutions are weighed. e. One of the solutions is accepted.

The Wallas Model 1. Wallas generated a series of four steps that probably is the classic description of the creative process: a. Preparation —During this stage, the creator is gathering information, thinking about the problem, and coming up with the best possible ideas. b. Incubation (the heart of the Wallas model) —During this stage, the individual does not consciously think about the problem.

c. Illumination (the “Aha c. Illumination (the “Aha!” experience) -- It is the point at which ideas suddenly fit together and the solution becomes clear. d. Verification — During this stage, the solution is checked for practicality, effectiveness, and appropriateness, and may be elaborated and fine-tuned as necessary. 2. Understanding the four steps of the Wallas model, particularly the incubation and illumination stages, provides a key to understanding the differences among many theories of creativity.

The Torrance Model 1. Torrance put forth a definition or process model of creativity as the basis for research. 2. Similar to Dewey’s model, it is made up of logical stages: a. sensing problems or difficulties. b. making guesses or hypotheses about the problems. c. evaluating the hypotheses, and possibly revising them. d. communicating the results. 3. The final stage, which implies actually doing something with the idea, is missing from both the Dewey and Wallas models.

Creative Problem Solving (CPS) 1. Early versions were presented in a linear form with alternating periods of convergent and divergent thought. The six steps are a. Mess-Finding b. Data-Finding c. Problem-Finding d. Idea-Finding e. Solution-Finding f. Acceptance-Finding

2. The most recent version of CPS reframes the components (specifying four), and renames stages and components to clarify functions. 3. The four components are (1) Understanding the Challenge, (2) Generating Ideas, (3) Preparing for Actions, and (4) Planning Your Approach.

The First Component: Understanding the Challenge 1.This component involves investigating a broad goal, opportunity, or challenge and clarifying thinking to set the principal direction for work. 2.The first stage in this component is Constructing Opportunities, in which a broad, brief, and beneficial goal is stated. 3.The second stage is Exploring Data, which entails examining many sources of information from different points of view and focusing on the most important elements. 4. The third stage is Framing Problems, in which problem statements are generated, usually starting with “In what ways might we …” (IWWMW). The intent is to identify ways to state the problem that will open the door to creative ideas.

The Second Component: Generating Ideas 1. The second general component of CPS has only one stage. 2. In this stage, ideas are generated for the selected problem statements using a variety of tools.

The Third Component: Preparing for Action 1.The third component involves exploring ways to make the promising options into workable solutions—translating ideas into action. 2.The first stage, Developing Solutions, applies deliberate strategies and tools to analyze, refine, and select among ideas. Often developing solutions entails using criteria to evaluate each of the proposed ideas systematically. 3.The second stage is building Acceptance, in which plans are made for the implementation of the chosen solution. Possible difficulties are anticipated and resources identified.

The Fourth Component: Planning Your Approach 1. This component reflects the need to monitor your thinking throughout the problem-solving process to make sure that you are moving in the desired direction and using an appropriate selection of CPS stages. 2. One aspect of this component, Appraising Tasks, involves determining whether CPS is a promising choice for this situation. If a situation is open-ended and would benefit from thinking about a number of possible options, CPS is an appropriate method. 3. The other aspect, Designing Processes, involves selecting from among the CPS options the components and stages most likely to be helpful. 4. Planning Your Approach can be considered the metacognitive facet of the CPS process that operates throughout the entire process.

Early Views Both Plato and Aristotle described the creative process, but in very different ways.

Plato 1. Plato describes the poet as under the influence of a divine madness that carries him out of his senses. 2. Plato’s emphasis on a mystic and external source of inspiration might ring true for Mozart. They both saw the inspiration for creative activities as coming from outside, beyond the control of the creative individual. 3. Creativity was considered unexplainable and outside normal human abilities.

Aristotle 1. In contrast, Aristotle argued that creative processes must obey understandable natural laws. 2. Aristotle did not believe that creative products came through mystical intervention or unique creative processes. 3. He believed that just as plants and animals produced young in a rational, predictable fashion, so art, ideas, and other human products derived from logical steps of natural law. 4. His approach may have appealed to Tchaikovsky.

Plato vs. Aristotle 1.The basic contrast between Plato’s and Aristotle’s positions continues into modern psychology. 2.Some theorists emphasize inspiration, insight, or other processes unique to creativity that may occur in ways not discernible to the conscious mind. 3.Others emphasize the similarities between creativity and other cognitive processes and postulate that there is nothing unique in the creative process.

Psychoanalytic Theories Psychoanalytic theories explain human behavior, development, and personality traits as shaped by powerful unconscious processes. Major figures of psychoanalytic theory: Freud, Kris, Kubie, Jung, Miller, and Rothenberg.

意識 (conscious) 1 一種覺醒的心理或精神狀態。 2 在此狀態下個體不僅對自己身體所處環境中的一切刺激，經由感覺與知覺而有所覺知，而且對自己心理上所記憶、理解、思維、想像、憂慮以及計畫或進行中的行為活動，也有所瞭解。 3 個體身心合一對內外世界有所瞭解並隨時做出適當行為反應的內在歷程。

潛意識（或無意識）(unconscious) 1 根據弗洛伊德的理論，人的心其作用分為三個層次，居上層者為意識，居中層者為前意識，居下層者為潛意識。 2 前意識（preconscious）是介於意識與潛意識之間的一種意識層面。潛意識層面下所壓抑的一些慾望或衝動，在浮現到意識層面之前，先經過前意識。 3 潛意識只潛藏在內心深處不為個體所知的意識，其中存在著很多慾望、衝動、痛苦記憶、想像等。

1 根據弗洛伊德的理論，人格是一個包括三個層次的整體結構。 （1）本我 (id) （2）自我 (ego) （3）超我 (superego) 人格結構 1 根據弗洛伊德的理論，人格是一個包括三個層次的整體結構。 （1）本我 (id) （2）自我 (ego) （3）超我 (superego) 2 三個“我”之間的一切交互衝突、協調形成個體的一切行為。

本我 (id) 1 人格中最原始的部分。 2 兩個特徵: （1）本我的一切活動受本能所支配--尋求生理需求，受快樂原則 (pleasure principle) 所支配。 （2）本我的一切活動受潛意識所支配。

自我 (ego) 1 是人格結構中的中間部分。 2 三個特徵: （1）自我是從本我中發展出來，其層次較本我為高，當本我無法獲致立即滿足時自我將遷就現實限制，受現實原則 (reality principle) 所支配。 （2）自我的大部分活動受意識所支配。 （3）自我介於本我與超我之間，在整著人格結構中發揮調和作用。

超我 (superego) 1 是人格結構中的最高部分，由個體在生活裡接受社會文化中道德規範的教養逐漸形成的。 2 兩個重要的部分: （1）自我理想(ego-ideal)--是要求自己行為符合自己理想的標準。 （2）良心(conscience)--是規定自己行為免於犯錯的限制。 3 由完美原則(perfection principle)所支配。

自我防衛 (ego defense) 1 當本我中的慾力衝動的壓力太強，難免使自我因調和困難而感到焦慮不安。 2 個體為了減緩心理上的焦慮，於是只好以自我防衛的方式去適應環境從而保持心理的平衡。 3 為了達成自我防衛免於焦慮的目的，個人從生活經驗中學習到一些自我防衛的手段，稱為防衛機制(defense mechanism)。

防衛機制(defense mechanism) 1 壓抑 (repression) （1）對自己的一些源自於本我而不被社會所接納的慾望、意念、衝動、記憶等予以壓抑，使之留存在潛意識層面，不讓它浮現到意識層面，以免形成焦慮、愧疚和痛苦。 （2）乃為最基本與最主要的防衛機制，其他防衛機制都是在壓抑的基礎上衍化出來的。 2 否認 (denial) （1）主要是在心理上不承認已發生的事實。 （2）對現實的困境於以否認，即可自認為不存在進而不必面對生活中那些無法解決的困難，如此從而減緩心理上的壓力。

3 投射 (projection) 指個人不自覺的把自己的過失或不為社會接納的慾念加諸在他人身上，藉以減輕自身缺點所帶來的焦慮不安。 4 合理化 (rationalization) 指個人對自己不當的作為或缺點，非但不予承認，反而加以扭曲，找出理由企圖給予合理的解釋。 5 轉移 (displacement) 指個人無法對面引起焦慮的對象而轉移目標，選擇較易處理的對象，從而消除焦慮獲得滿足的一種防衛機制。

6 反向作用 (reaction formation) 指個人對不被社會所接納的慾望、意念、衝動等除了予以壓抑之外，在行為上反而表現出與所壓抑者相反的作為。 7 補償 (compensation) 是個人自認本身某方面條件不足或有缺陷時，轉而力求發展其他方面的長處，從而達到維持自尊的目的。 8 昇華 (sublimation) （1）指個人對不被社會所接納的慾望、意念、衝動等，轉化為社會能接納的行為方式表現出來，不但藉以避免因心理衝突所生焦慮的痛苦，更可進而獲致心理需求上的滿足。 （2）昇華作用是所有防衛機制中最健康正面的一種。 （3）如藝術、文學的創作藉由昇華作用，在社會接納的條件下，抒發情感並獲致心理需求的滿足。

分組活動： 3 每組派一位代表報告其討論結果。 1 請與座位附近的同學形成4至6人的小組。 2 請每組討論有關八種防衛機制的例子（儘可能每一防衛機制都有至少一種的例子）。 3 每組派一位代表報告其討論結果。

Freud’s Approach 1. Human behavior could be explained by examining conflicts between unconscious desires and acceptable outward behavior. 2. He postulated three aspects of human personality: (1) the ego—logical conscious mind. (2) the id—primitive unconscious drives. (3) the superego—a conscience-like force that acts as mediator between the other two

3. Freud tied creativity to the sublimation of drives deriving from the id. 4. He believed that beginning in childhood, a person must repress his or her sexual desire in order to fit into conventional society. 5. Thus he saw these sexual urges as particularly powerful forces that must be countered by psychic defenses. 6. Many of the defense mechanisms resulted in unhealthy behaviors and various neuroses. Creativity, on the other hand, represented a healthy form of sublimation, using unfulfilled unconscious drives for productive purposes.

Kris 1. Kris asserted that the basic process of creativity is regression, that creative individuals are able to recreate a childlike state of mind in which unconscious ideas are more accessible to the conscious mind. 2. Kris believed that freely wandering fantasy may serve the id in relieving unconscious desires, but unlike Freud, he emphasized regression in service of the ego.

3. The childlike state involved in reflective thinking, problem solving, and creativity may be undertaken purposefully, under the control of the creator. 4. He postulated two phases of the creative process: (1) an inspirational phase: deriving from uncontrolled unconscious processes. (2) an elaborational phase: directed by the conscious ego.

Kubie 1. Kubie extended psychoanalytic theory in two major breaks with Freud. 2. First, Kubie postulated that creativity has its roots, not in the unconscious, but in the preconscious system flowing between the conscious and unconscious. 3. In his view, both the conscious and unconscious are rigid functions distorting or disrupting creativity.

4. The flexibility is found in the preconscious state on the fringe of consciousness. This is the state we experience between sleep and wakefulness or during daydreaming. 5. Second, Kubie broke with Freud on the role of neuroses in creativity. 6. Whereas Freud believed that powerful unconscious desires and neuroses could be expressed through creative activity, Kubie believed that neuroses distort creativity.

Jung’s Theories 1. Carl Jung believed that important creative ideas come from influences greater that those in the mind of a single individual. 2. He examined the patterns in human behavior, story, and myth that transcend time or culture. 3. He believed that such patterns can be explained by postulating a human collective unconscious, “a sphere of unconscious mythology … the common heritage of humankind.”

4. The images, figures, and characters of the collective unconscious are seen to be remnants of the experiences of our ancestors. 5. The individuals most adept at tapping into the collective unconscious are those most capable of high-quality creative activity.

Miller 1. Miller studied the childhood of creative individuals and sought information on repressed childhood traumas that might give clues to their creative development, for example, Picasso’s painting Guernica. 2. Much creativity is the result of individual efforts to deal with unconscious childhood pain.

Rothenberg 1. Rothenberg examined the creative process through extensive psychiatric interviews and experiments with artists and scientists. 2. Unlike the subjects of many other psychoanalytic researchers, his subjects were not patients in therapy, but willing participants in a research effort.

3. Rothenberg identified specific thought processes that he believed are used by creative people across disciplines. 4. These processes “distinguish creative people from the rest of us.” 5. The first of these he called the janusian process (after Janus, the Roman god of doorways and beginnings, whose two faces look in opposite directions). 6. The second is the homospatial process.

The Janusian Process 1. Contrary to much psychoanalytic thought, Freud viewed the janusian process as a conscious, rational procedure. 2. In the janusian process, opposites are conceived simultaneously, a leap that transcends ordinary logic. 3. Although not necessarily represented in the finished product, the idea of opposites being equally true represents an important stage in the creative process.

The Homospatial Process 1. The second of Rothenberg’s creative processes is the homospatial process, conceiving of two or more entities occupying the same space at the same time. 2. This is the process leading to the development of metaphors.

Behaviorist or Associationist Theory 1. Associationist psychologists view human activities as resulting from a series of stimuli and responses. 2. Individuals’ actions were determined solely by their history of reinforcement. 3. Theorists from this perspective focus on observable behaviors rather than internal drives or desires.

Skinner and the Chickens 1. Skinner (1972) stated that a poet is no more responsible for the content or structure of a poem than a chicken is responsible for laying an egg. 2. The more creativity or activities approaching creativity are reinforced, the more they should occur.

Mednick’s Associative Theory 1. He theorized that creative ideas result from a particular type of response, the bringing together of remote, unrelated ideas. 2. Individuals who frequently bring remote ideas together should be more likely than others to produce creative ideas. 3. This process may be influenced by two factors. 4. First, individuals must have the needed elements in their repertoires. 5. Second, individuals must have a complex network of associations with the stimulus.

The Effects of Reward on Novel Behavior 1. Eisenberger and Cameron (1996) and Eisenberger, Armeli, and Pretz (1998) used a behaviorist perspective to argue for the positive influence of reward on creativity, at least in divergent-thinking tasks. 2. This contradicts the current prevailing view regarding the negative impact of reward on intrinsic motivation and creativity.

Humanist Theories 1. Humanist theorists focus on normal growth and the development of mental health. 2. They view creativity as the culmination of well-adjusted mental development. 3. The two major humanist theorists are Maslow and Rogers.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Original Five-Stage Model)

馬斯洛 (Abraham Maslow) 的 需求層次（hierarchy of needs）論

Maslow’s Theories 1.Maslow, founder of the humanist psychology movement, postulated a hierarchy of human needs that can be met in a generally ascending order, beginning with physical needs and progressing to needs for safety and security, love and belonging, self-esteem, and self-fulfillment. 2.Maslow postulated two types of creativity: special talent creativity and self-actualizing creativity.

3. Special talent creativity is “independent of goodness or health of character” and functions in creative geniuses. 4. Self-actualizing creativity is the basis for most of Maslow’s writing on this topic. Creativity of this type is a manifestation of mental health and movement toward self-actualization. 5. He believed that the ability to express ideas freely without self-criticism is essential to this type of creativity, and that this ability paralleled the innocent, happy creativity of secure children. 6. Creativity was described as “a fundamental characteristic, inherent in human nature, a potentiality given to all or almost human beings at birth, which most often is lost or buried or inhibited as the person gets enculturated.”

Rogers’ Approach 1. The mainspring of creativity appears to be the same tendency which we discover so deeply as the curative force in psychotherapy—man’s tendency to actualize himself, to become his potentialities. 2. Rogers viewed creativity as the emergence of novel products through the interaction of an individual and the environment. The characteristics associated with creativity allow this interaction to take place.

3. The first characteristic identified by Rogers is openness to experience. Creative individuals are free of psychological defenses that would keep them from experiencing their environment. 4. The second characteristic is an internal locus of evaluation — that is, reliance on one’s own judgment, particularly in gauging creative products. 5. The third one is the ability to toy with elements and concepts.

Vygotsky’s Theory 1. Vygotsky emphasized the social and cultural interactions that underlie human thought and understanding. 2. Vygosky believed that creative imagination originates in child’s play. In particular, he saw the use of objects in symbolic play as key to the development of imagination, e.g. a child using a stick as a play horse.

維格斯基的最近發展區理論 (zone of proximal development) 1. 基於社會文化促進認知發展的理念，維格斯基提出學校教育可提升兒童認知認知發展水準。 2. 最近發展區是指兒童從實際認知發展水準到可能認知發展水準之間的差距。 3. 某一兒童的實際認知發展水準，可由他獨立思維操作解決問題時所表現的成就來決定。 4. 某一兒童的可能認知發展水準，是指在他人（如教師）適當協助之下可能達到的成就。 5. 他認為不宜只重視兒童的實際發展區，而應特別重視他的最近發展區；學校應將 “協助學生在學得實際能力之上去發展他潛在能力” 視為教學的目的。

3. Vygosky distinguished between reproductive imagination, in which the individual imagines things from memory, and combinatory imagination, in which he or she combines elements of previous experience into new situations or behavior that characterizes creativity. 4. Despite the importance of early childhood experiences, Vygotsky saw them only as a beginning stage, not as a pinnacle of creativity.

5. The child’s imagination is not richer, but poorer than the imagination of an adult; in the process of child development imagination also develops, reaching maturity only in the adult. 6. Vygotsky saw adult creativity as a consciously directed thought process in which individuals change and combine ideas in specific social conditions to create works of art, inventions, or scientific conclusions.

7. The transition between the child’s imagination and the adult’s mature, thoughtful creativity occurs in the middle stage, adolescence. 8. As adolescents develop the ability to manipulate abstract concepts, they begin to develop a more the ability to manipulate abstract concepts, they begin to develop a more active and volitional creativity than that of childhood.

9. Vygotsky proposed a developmental theory in which creative imagination begins in children’s symbolic play and develops into a consciously regulated mental function influencing and influenced by inner speech and concept development. 10. The linking of imagination and thought begins in adolescence, but does not reach maturity until adulthood. 11. Vygotsky foreshadowed contemporary systems theories by situating creativity in a particular time and place. 12. Creativity, like other learning, emerges through interactions with other individuals. This occurs both at a micro level and at a macro level.

Creativity, Intelligence, and Cognition 1. The relationships between creativity and intelligence might best be described as “it depends.” It depends on the definition and measures used to assess both creativity and intelligence. 2. The most common relationship postulated is the threshold theory. 3. According to this theory, below a certain threshold (approximately 120 IQ) there is a strong, positive relationship between creativity and intelligence; above the level, the relationship is weak.

Guilford’s Structure of the Intellect 1. Guildord’s Structure of the Intellect (SOI) model is a complex model of intelligence, in its most recent form, 180 components. 2. The components are formed through combinations of types of content, operations, and product. 3. Each type of content can be matched with each operation or product to form a separate cell of the cube associated with a particular intellectual ability.

4. The SOI model includes divergent thinking, as one of the basic processes of intelligence. 5. Guilford identified 4 components of divergent thinking that have formed the backbone of much research and assessment of creativity. (1) fluency: generating many ideas (2) flexibility: generating different types of ideas or ideas from different perspectives (3) originality: generating unusual ideas (4) elaboration: adding to ideas to improve them

6. Guilford identified 2 categories of abilities associated with creativity. (1) The first is the divergent thinking “slab.” (2) The second is associated with transformations, the ability to revise what one experiences or knows to produce a new form. 7. Whichever cells are identified as critical, the key to this perspective on creativity is that it is an intellectual function.

Perkins 1. Perkins examined ties between ordinary cognitive processes and the extraordinary processes sometimes postulated for creativity. 2. He suggested that a more complete and accurate source for gaining understanding of the creative process is immediate self-reports — descriptions of the creative process given by creators while the process is taking place or immediately thereafter, e.g. poets writing in a laboratory situation.

Perkins did NOT fine evidence to support the traditional view of incubation or unique creative thought processes He viewed the creative process as made up of ordinary mental processes used in extraordinary ways. The key to creativity is not the process but the purpose. He postulated that creativity, rather than being a specific thought process, may be a trait made up of abilities, style, values, beliefs, and tactics.

Weisberg 1. Weisberg attempted to demystify the creative process by debunking familiar myths about creative genius and examining research that ties creativity to familiar cognitive processes. 2. He questioned the idea of creative leaps or flashes of insight by citing research showing that solutions to problems come, not in a sudden change of direction, but in gradual increments based on experience.

3. Ideas that appear to be new and original emerge, not fully formed from the depths of genius, but bit by bit as part of a long, constantly evolving effort. 4. Creativity can be enhanced in two basic ways: by increasing expertise (allowing the individual to build more broadly on what has gone before) and by increasing commitment and persistence (allowing the individual to keep on building when initial attempts fail).

Creative Cognition 1. Creativity occurs along a wide range of activities, beginning with the very ordinary processes of language use and concept development and extending to ideas representing fundamental shifts in various domains. 2. The creative cognition approach concentrates primarily on the cognitive processes and conceptual structures that produce creative ideas.

3. The processes of creative cognition into four general categories: (1) Conceptual combination – the bringing together of diverse ideas in new ways. (2) Conceptual expansion – the stretching of existing concepts to accommodate new experiences or challenges. (3) Metaphors, analogies, and mental models use existing ideas to understand, interpret, or extend seemingly diverse concepts. (4) Insight, imagery, and response to recently activated knowledge.

Systems Approaches 1. The most complex set of theories approaches creativity as an interaction between the individual and the outside world. 2. In these theories, the mechanisms of the mind are not sufficient to explain the creative process. They must be placed in the context of an external environment. 3. Simonton stated, “Creativity cannot be properly understood in isolation from the social context, for creativity is a special form of personal influence: The effective creator profoundly alters the thinking habits of other human beings.”

Feldman: Defender of Insight and the Unconscious 1. He listed seven dimensions that may influence creative processes: (a) cognitive processes (b) social and emotional processes (c) family aspects – growing up and current processes (d) education and preparation – formal and informal (e) characteristics of the domain and field (f) sociocultural contextual aspects (g) historical forces, events, and trends.

As a developmentalist, Feldman believed that creativity develops along these multiple dimensions. In contrast to Rogers, who believed creativity was part of the natural developmental process for all human beings, Feldman’s focus on extraordinary creativity led him to focus on extraordinary or nonuniversal development. Nonuniversal development encompasses developmental changes that are unique to highly creative individuals.

大C與小C 大C (big “C” creativity) 是指對人類文化文明的進步有較大貢獻的創意，例如愛迪生發明電燈，愛因斯坦提出相對論。 小C (little “c” creativity) 是指對個人生活品質與層次提升的創意，例如把廢棄物變成裝飾品，創作一個小小的裝飾品，運用想像力把例行的工作變的更有趣。 從大C與小C的觀點來看，大C的產生需要有一定程度的天生條件（遺傳基因），並非人人都能達成，而小C卻是一般人都可以學習達成的。

Sternberg: An Investment Theory of Creativity 1. Individuals must buy low and sell high. 2. Instead of investing in stocks or diamonds, these individuals invest in ideas. 3. Creative individuals pursue ideas that are novel or out of favor (buying low), then convince the field of the value of those ideas.

4. Once the ideas gain favor, they allow others to pursue them (selling high) while they go on to other endeavors. 5. Individuals who pursue already popular trends or solutions are less likely to achieve valuable original results. 6. The investment theory suggests that 6 types of interacting resources contribute to creative performance: intellectual processes, knowledge, intellectual style, personality, motivation, and environmental context.

投資理論 (Investment Theory) 斯騰柏格（Sternberg）和魯巴特 （Lubart）提出。 個體必須買低賣高以成就創造力：個體應該追求新奇或不受歡迎的觀點（買低）以增加產生創意產品的可能性（賣高）。 創造力的表現所需要的六種資源：智識能力 (intellectual abilities)、知識 (knowledge)、思考風格 (thinking styles)、人格特質 (personality)、動機 (motivation)、環境 (environment)。

五種思考風格 1 行政型 (executive) 2 立法型 (legislative) 3 司法型 (judicial) 4 整體型 (global) 5 局部型 (local) ＊創意的表現：立法型的思考風格；同時具備整體型與局部型的思考風格 (think globally as well as locally)。

Csikszentmihalyi: A Three-Pronged Systems Model of Creativity 1. Csikzentmihalyi’s three-pronged systems model of creativity includes aspects of the person, the domain, and the field. 2. This model changes one of the basic questions in the study of creativity from “What is creativity?” to “Where is creativity?” 3. It examines creativity profound enough to be described as “the transformation of a cultural system (e.g., chemistry, medicine, poetry) – the incorporation of novelty into the culture.”

Csikszentmihalyi 的 三指標系統模式 1 「選擇」(selection) 和「變異」(variation) 是演化的兩個最重要機制。 2 獨創性與有用性（價值性）和演化論中的變異與選擇有關。獨創性為變異，有用性為選擇。 3 Csikszentmihalyi (1990)提出三指標系統模式 (three-pronged systems model): (1) 個人 (individual) (2) 領域 (domain) (3) 學門（或學界）(field)

個人 個人必須先透過學習的歷程，將領域知識、符號、系統、規範、判準等內化，才能避免盲目變異的陷阱。 與創造力有關的個人重要成分為： 將系統內化 動機—心流經驗 (flow experience) Flow is a mental state of operation in which the person is fully immersed in what he or she is doing, characterized by a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and success in the process of the activity. Proposed by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, the concept has been widely referenced across a variety of fields.

領域 領域係指知識系統與象徵符號系統，而文化就是這些不同的知識系統所組成 個體要能產生創造產品，必須學習與具備領域的知識與技能。 知識在文化或領域中是否能不斷的進化，創造扮演關鍵的角色。 創造力的產生需要以特定領域的專業知識為基礎。

學門（或學界）(field) 某一領域的社會組織。 其中包含了領域中的專家、批評者、有成就的先驅等，這些人通常負責判定某一理念與產品是否足以成為該領域中有價值的創造，這些人也被稱為守門人 (gate keeper)。 守門人以領域中所獲得的共識標準對新觀念或新產品進行批判。

Gardner Building on Csikszentmihalyi’s model, Gardner described an interactive perspective on creativity that recognized the importance of the interactions among individuals, domains, and fields (p. 80). Drawing on his own theory of multiple intelligences (MI), Gardner came to believe that individuals are creative in particular, domain-specific ways.

Gardner’s definition of creativity reflects creative functioning, NOT as a general personal characteristic, but in a particular area. The creative individual is a person who regularly solves problems, fashion products, or defines new questions in a domain in a way that is initially considered novel but that ultimately becomes accepted in a particular cultural setting. In his studies of eminent creators, Gardner found wide variations in the types of intellectual strengths demonstrated by creators in different domains.

He found that the symbol systems to be mastered and the activities in which individuals must be engaged vary enormously across disciplines. He described 5 types of activities in which creative individuals may be involved. (1) Solving a particular problem. (2) Putting forth a general conceptual scheme. (3) Creating a product (tangible or intangible). (4) Giving a stylized performance. (5) Performing for high stakes.

Amabile 的成分模式 (componential model) 創意產品的產生至少必須仰賴三個基本成分： 1 領域相關的技能 (domain-relevant skills) 2 創造力相關的技能 (creativity-relevant skills) 3 工作動機 (task motivation) 4 後來加入社會環境的成分 * Amabile 在創造力的評量上強調產品或可觀察的反應才是創造力最終的證明。

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