Thomas Hobbes 1588-1679 關鍵字：state of nature, natural rights, fear of death, social contract, liberty, sovereignty, Leviathan 授課教師：陳嘉銘 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用CC「姓名標示－非商業性－相同方式分享」台灣3.0版授權釋出】

所有來源 1340s The Black Death 1350 Humanist: Francesco Petrarch(1304-1374); Giovanni Baccaccio(1313-1375) 1337-1452 The Hundred Years' War 1415 Portuguese’s voyages toward Africa; beginning of European expansion 1449 Charles VII conducted 60 successful sieges in a year. (firearms royalize and proletarianize) 1490 -16世紀末，每四年有三年重大戰爭，非常花錢。(war makes the state, state makes the war) 1492 Christopher Columbus reached America 1516 Machiavelli’s The Prince; Thomas More’s Utopia 1517 Martin Luther’s 95 theses; 1564 John Calvin died in Geneva 1525 Battle of Pavia: Spanish musketeers(700 dead) vs French cavalry(8000 dead) 1527- French, Spanish, English Kings claimed to be absolutist and sovereign in 16 century. 1532 Spaniards conquered New Spain; silver and gold poured in Europe 1534 Henry VIII divorced Catherine of Aragon; Decisive subordination of the Church to state. 1540 feudal lords became capitalist farmers(enclosures); rural putting-out system(industrial captialism 1543 Copernicus’s On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres 1576 Jean Bodin’s Les Six livres de la République (The Six Books of the Republic) 1580 Michel de Montaigne’s Essais (1533-1592) 1615 Galileo Galilei defended himself in Rome; 1620 Francis Bacon’s Novum Organum 1618-1648 Thirty Years' War; 1648 Treaties of Westphalia 1625 Hugo Grotius’s De jure belli ac pacis libri tres (1583-1645) 1641 René Descartes’s Meditations on First Philosophy 1642-1651 English Civil War 1651 Hobbes’s Leviathan; 1687 Newton’s Principia

The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (Massacre de la Saint-Barthélemy in French) in 1572 was a targeted group of assassinations and a wave of Catholic mob violence, directed against the Huguenots (French Calvinist Protestants) during the French Wars of Religion. Traditionally believed to have been instigated by Catherine de' Medici, the mother of King Charles IX, the massacre took place five days after the wedding of the king's sister Margaret to the Protestant Henry III of Navarre (the future Henry IV of France). This marriage was an occasion for which many of the most wealthy and prominent Huguenots had gathered in largely Catholic Paris. St. Bartholomew's Day massacre 1572 (by François Dubois) Death 5000-30000 The French Wars of Religion (1562–98) French Catholics vs. Protestants (Huguenots)

從古典(classical)到近現代(modern) 1.分析單位 one/few/many -> individuals 2.生活的(最高)目的 virtuous, good life -> 欲望滿足 3.自然(nature) 自然本性或 -> 最小道德 自然法法指引完 整、豐富的生活

Aristotle’s View on Political Community (人作為一個政治動物的自然發展) Living (polis come into being) necessity security, order, stability… (condition) Living Well (polis exist for) good life justice, virtues, best nature, political animal… 5

Thomas Aquinas’s Natural Law (1224-1274) man’s natural inclinations(自然趨向) 1.do and seek good, and shun evil 2.self-preservation 3.sexual union and upbringing children 4.know God and live sociably in society man as a rational being(要培養、練習) 5.all virtuous acts (所有人訂的法律，都不能違背這些自然法)

Hobbes’s materialist response to the scepticism 1. begin with Descartes’s question 2. We can only certain with trains of imaginations within our mind (even space and time are imaginary). 3. Nothing can move itself. (one cannot cause oneself to think) 4. Nothing could be moved except bodies in space. 5. Only an adjacent body could move other bodies. 6. There must be some material object outside himself causing him to have the perceptions and imaginations. 7. Everything else (about the actual character of the external world and of our relationship to it) must remain a hypothesis, although some hypotheses better.

Good, Evil and Felicity “And because the constitution of a man’s body is in continual mutation, it is impossible that all the same things should always cause in him the same appetites and aversions; much less can all men consent in the desire of almost any one and the same object. By whatsoever is the object of any man’s appetite and desire that is it which he or she calleth good, and the object of his hate and aversion, evil…” (chap vi) “ Felicity is a continual progress of the desire, from one object to another object, the attaining of the former being still but the way to the latter. The cause whereof is that the object of man’s desire is not to enjoy once only…but to assure forever the way of his future desire….” (chap xi)

The need of endless pursuit of power “The power of a man…is his present means to obtain some future apparent good” (chap x) “a general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire of power after power…And the cause of this is not…he cannot be content with a moderate power…but because he cannot assure the power and means to live well, which he hath present, without the acquisition of more.” (chap ix) “And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any man to secure himself so reasonable as anticipation, that is, by force or wiles to master the persons of all men he can, so long till he sees no other power great enough to endanger him” (chap xiii)

各種形式的power 1.The greatest human power is men united by consent in one person. (to have servants; to have friends; commonwealth) 2.Riches with liberality is power. (get servants and friends) 3.Reputation of power is power. (draw adherents seeking protection) 4.Reputation of love of a man’s country.(draw adherents) 5.The quality makes men beloved or feared of many(or the reputation of such quality)(means to have assistance and service of many) 6.Good success(makes reputation of wisdom or good fortune) 7.Affability of men already in power(gain love) 8.Reputation of prudence in the conduct of peace or war(gain willing adherence) 9.Nobility(only in some countries with such privileges) 10.Eloquence (seeming prudence) 11.Form(gain favors from women and strangers) 12.Arts of public use, as making of engines, instrument of war… 13. Honourable is whatever possession, action, or quality is an argument and sign of power… Magnanimity, liberty, hope, courage, confidence, are honourable; 14. Actions proceeding from equity, joined with loss, are honourable, as signs of magnanimity…Not does it alter the case of honour, whether an action…be just or unjust; for honour consisteth only in the opinion of power. (chap x)

人們衝突的根源 1.Competition of gain (toward distrust) (natural equality of man -> equality of hope) 2.Safety (from distrust) (endless pursuit of domination ought to be allowed him) 3.Recognition of personal honour 4.Anarchy of language “all men be not alike affected with the same thing…we can hardly avoid different naming of them…the diversity of our reception of it, in respect of different constitutions of body and prejudices of opinion…besides the signification of what we imagine for their nature, have a signification also of the nature, disposition and interest of the speaker…for one man calleth wisdom, another fear; and one cruelty, another justice…”(chap iv) 理性能夠確定知道的事情很少，沒有人能完全確定自己是對的，只能仰賴我們同意的政治領域的仲裁者統一我們的道德語言。

衝突的根源 （從平等到競爭） 1.每個人的體質、欲望、喜好、快樂來源、秉性、意見和習慣都不一樣。 2.men are by nature equal: 雖然有些人比較強壯和聰明，但是整體來說，自然賦予每個人身體和心智能力差距，即便後天養成不同，「沒有大到有一個人可以主張他擁有任何利益是其他人不能主張的」。 2.以身體強弱為例，最弱的人都可以殺死最強的人(秘密、機關或者和他人和作)。 3.以判斷力來說，(1)prudence來自經驗；(2)儘管我們承認很多人比我們更聰明善道有學問，可是我們也不相信有很多人像我自己這麼聰明。如果每個人都這樣滿意自己，這證明了每個人其實都差不多聰明。(沒有比每個人都滿意自己分到的那份，更能證明這是平等分配了。) 4.從身體和心智的平等，產生了每個人都有平等的希望（equality of hope）想要達成他們的目的。每個人都認為自己有資格獲得別人獲得的東西。

衝突的根源 （從不信任到自保到無限支配他人的權利） 1.平等產生「不信任」：如果兩個人想要一樣的東西卻無法都擁有，他們就會成為敵人，在兩人追求目的過程，主要為了自保，但是有時為了愉快，就會去毀滅或者支配他人。 2.我們單獨時，可以預期其他人可能會結合起來，不只剝奪我努力的結果，還有我的生命和自由。侵犯我的人也會這樣預期。 3.為了自保，沒有比這樣作更合理：以武力或聰明，支配所有他可以支配的人，直到他看不到更大的力量足以威脅他。他需要比「純粹自保」更多的支配。 4.有些人享受征服他人的行為（儘管有些人容易滿足於各種小欲望），你為了要自保、有足夠力量抵抗這樣的人，你只能靠侵犯他人來擴大自己的權力。 5.因此為了自保而擴大支配他人，對個人自保是「必要的」，也應該「允許」每個人「有權利」去追求。

自然狀態(state of nature) 1.沒有一個共同的力量(政府)，讓每個人害怕。 2.人人為戰(“a war of every man against every man”) 3.state of war: 關鍵定義不是正在發生的打鬥，而是在一段時間中，所有人(1)都充分知道其他人的’will to contend by battle’ (2)而且無法確定別人不會這樣。 4. “In such condition, there is no place for industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by sea; no commodious building; no instruments of moving, and removing, such things as require much force; no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

nature vs. artificial 1.Nature dissociates men. 2.古典觀點大多認為人的自然傾向是想要和睦的群聚(natural sociability)。 3.人與人之間的自然傾向、同情心等等都不可靠，無法成為政治和正義的基礎。 4.霍布斯問:你旅遊時不武裝嗎，你出門不上鎖嗎?你在家裡不鎖保險櫃嗎?當你武裝和上鎖時，你是怎麼看待你的公民同胞?你的妻子和兒子?而且這還是有法律的狀態。 5.要以人為的意志和理性，去克服自然的困境

自然狀態 在哪裡? 1.美洲那些原始居民 2.內戰 3.君王、主權者、國家之間 4.X-men and mankind

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 1-22 本作品轉載自http://www.templateswise.com/ 設計範本，造訪日期：2016年09月13日 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 2 1340s The Black Death……; 1687 Newton’s Principia 文字提供：國立臺灣大學　陳嘉銘 3 Artist:François Dubois(1529-1584) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Francois_Dubois_001.jpg This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term  is the author's life plus 100 years or less. 瀏覽日期：2016年11月13日。本作品為公共財。 4 從古典……豐富的生活

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 5 Aristotle’s View ……political animal 6 文字提供：國立臺灣大學　陳嘉銘 6 Thomas Aquinas’s Natural Law……所有人訂的法律，都不能違背這些自然法 7 Hobbes’s materialist response to the scepticism……some hypotheses better. 8 And because the constitution of a man’s body is in continual ……assure forever the way of his future desire Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Edwin Curley (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1994) chap xi 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 9 The power of a man……apparent good Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Edwin Curley (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1994)chapX 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 a general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire of ……which he hath present, without the acquisition of more Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Edwin Curley (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1994)chapIX And from this diffidence of one another, there is no way for any ……power great enough to endanger him Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Edwin Curley (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1994)chapXIII

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 10 1.The greatest human power is men …, whether an action…opinion of power. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Edwin Curley (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1994)chapX 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 11 人們衝突的根源……仲裁者統一我們的道德語言 文字提供：國立臺灣大學　陳嘉銘 12 每個人的體質、欲望……自己有資格獲得別人獲得的東西。 13 衝突的根源……每個人「有權利」去追求。

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 14 沒有一個共同的力量(政府)，讓每個人害怕。……確定別人不會這樣。 文字提供 國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘 In such condition, there is no ……solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Edwin Curley (Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1994) 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 15 1.Nature dissociates men……去克服自然的困境 文字提供：國立臺灣大學　陳嘉銘 16 自然狀態……4.X-men and mankind