西洋哲學史 第九講：亞里斯多德的物理學 授課教師：國立臺灣大學哲學系 苑舉正 教授 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用CC「姓名標示－非商業性－相同方式分享」台灣3.0版授權釋出】 本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2003多媒體藝廊，依據Microsoft服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。

亞氏有關改變的研究 1. 從邏輯發展是有關改變的研究。 2. 改變與實體。 3. 四因說。 4. 改變就是從潛在到實現的過程。 2

1. 從邏輯到改變的研究 對於亞氏而言，部分邏輯的功用，在於解釋「述詞」的本質 predication (‘A is B’, analyzed by Aristotle as ‘B is predicated of A’ or ‘B belongs to A’ as in ‘animal belongs to every man’ (such that ‘man is animal’)。這是邏輯所隱含的預設。 3

1.從邏輯到改變的研究 為了述詞，亞氏提供了十種範疇。Categories (kategoriai; usually called schēmata tēs katēgorias）。 4

1.從邏輯到改變的研究 十範疇如下：實體(a substance)、數量(a quantity)、性質(a quality)、關係(a relative)、地點(a place)、時間(a time)、所處(a position)、所有(a having)、活動(a doing)以及感受(a being affected)。 5

1.從邏輯到改變的研究 就語言而言，範疇反應各種詞性，例如數字、形容詞、動詞(for example, count-nouns, adjectives, verbs)，也是主詞與述詞上的文法區別(for example, subject, predicate)。但是，它們最主要的功能就是對於述詞所指涉的事物進行分類。 6

1.從邏輯到改變的研究 ‘Socrates is a man’與 ‘Socrates is a musician’ 是文法一樣，但卻「指涉」不同事物。 The first predicates a second substance of a first substance, whereas the second predicates a non-substance of a first substance. 7

1.從邏輯到改變的研究 第一範疇是「實體」ousia (literally, ‘being’ ), 在拉丁文中是‘substantia’，所以以‘substance’稱之。 其他範疇中重要的是質、量、與關係。 8

1. From logic to the Study of Change 每一種範疇都有殊象與共象。 The statement that ‘this individual man is an animal’ predicates a second substance (that is, a universal in the category of substance) of a first substance (that is, a particular in the category of substance). ‘White is a colour’predicates one universal quality of another. 9

1.從邏輯到改變的研究 範疇顯現存在的複雜性，但亞氏認為這是稱呼上的不同。從這點可以知道，亞氏的存有學與邏輯語言之間的相關性。 連帶地這也使得存在不是一個固定的範疇。 10

1.從邏輯到改變的研究 這是對於柏拉圖的批判。 事物是複雜的。 Aristotle believes Plato mistakenly pursued a single account of beings; the theory of categories is meant to avoid Platonic errors. 11

1.從邏輯到改變的研究 對於柏氏而言，存在就是理型的顯現。對於亞氏而言，存在就是範疇的指稱。 前者認為真實存在就是型式的，而後者認為真實存在就是形式與材質的結合。 12

1.從邏輯到改變的研究 這兩人之間，誰對誰錯構成很多討論。 但是對於亞氏而言，指稱、範疇與存在三者之間，有一個共生關係。 這是一個預設立場。 13

2. 改變與實體 亞氏物理學討論的是「自然」，其實是動態的發展，展現本質的過程，包含一切事物。 The nature of x is a principle (or ‘source’; archē), internal to x; hence the inquiry into nature leads to a discussion of change in natural substances. 14

2. 改變與實體 亞氏在理解變化所引用的觀念是辯證的。例如，人的成長需要持續的轉變，但總是在一個內在原則的引導下發生各種轉變。這個內在原則的認知，是融貫的。 presupposed by a coherent account of natural change. 15

2.改變與實體 對於一個人的改變而言，主體本身就是唯一不變的存在，也就是「實體」的範疇。 16

2.改變與實體 「實體的改變」，就不算是改變，而是消失。 Socrates’ ceasing to be a man is not a change in Socrates, but the perishing of Socrates. 17

2.改變與實體 實體，因此而成為本質。 These essential properties define a kind to which the first substance belongs. 18

2.改變與實體 其他九種範疇都不是實體的，所以其在語句中的意義與在存有學中的存在都不一樣。 19

2.改變與實體 即使消失，實體也可以繼續存在，就像是「一塊青銅」消失後，成為一個雕像。 這裡的變化是，從材質，轉向形式。 20

2.改變與實體 If we make a statue from bronze, the lump of bronze (the subject) acquires the shape of the statue, and loses the shapelessness it had, and so changes between contraries. But although the lump remains in existence, a new subject, the statue, has come into being. 21

2.改變與實體 這個觀念中似乎包含只有材質才是真正實體的感覺。 The genuine substance, is the matter, whereas the apparent substance (for example, the statue) is simply matter with a certain shape. 22

2.改變與實體 一個自然存在物也可能是由材質與形勢所結合出來的結果。 Similarly, then, a natural organism might be understood as a piece of matter shaped in a certain way so as to embody Socrates. 23

2.改變與實體 Natural organic ‘substances’, such as Socrates and this tree, turn out to be not genuine subjects, but mere configurations of the matter that is the real substance. 24

3. 物理學中的原因 解釋理論用來回答「為什麼？」 ‘Why does this event happen?’ or ‘Why is this object as it is?’, we state the cause (or explanation; aition) of the event or object. Aristotle believes that causes are multivocal （多重的）. 25

3.物理學中的原因 Different accounts of a cause correspond to different answers to why-questions about (for example) a statue. 26

3.物理學中的原因 (1) 物質因‘It is made of bronze’ states the material cause. (2) 形式因‘It is a statue representing Pericles’ states the formal cause, by stating the definition that says what the thing is. 27

3.物理學中的原因 (3) 有效因‘A sculptor made it’ states the ‘source of change’ by mentioning the source of the process that brought the statue into being; later writers call this the ‘moving cause’ or ‘efficient cause’. 28

3.物理學中的原因 (4) 目的因‘It is made to represent Pericles’ states ‘that for the sake of which’, since it mentions the goal or end for the sake of which the statue was made; this is often called the ‘final’ (Latin finis; ‘end’) cause. 29

3.物理學中的原因 四因說與亞氏的變動說形成融貫的體系。 Each of the four causes answers a why-question. Sometimes (as in our example) a complete answer requires all four causes. 30

3.物理學中的原因 三角形的特例：Not all four, however, are always appropriate; the (universal) triangle, for example, has a formal cause, stating its definition, but no efficient cause, since it does not come into being, and no final cause, since it is not made to promote any goal or end. 31

3.物理學中的原因 A hammer’s form and essence is a capacity to hammer nails into wood. The hammer was designed to have this capacity for performing this function; and if this had not been its function, it would not have been made in the way it was, to have the properties it has. 32

3.物理學中的原因 形式因為指出功能而解釋存在的原因。 The form includes the final cause, by specifying the functions that explain why the hammer is made as it is. 33

3.物理學中的原因 對於自然存有物而言，形式因解釋其所有的功能，也構成其存在的目的。 The parts of an organism seem to perform functions that benefit the whole (the heart pumps blood, the senses convey useful information). 34

3.物理學中的原因 形式本身反過來由事物的行為所決定，因為這些行為都是以實現目的因為主。 The form of an organism is determined by the pattern of activity that contains the final causes of its different vital processes.

3.物理學中的原因 所以，對於亞氏而言，形式與材質都對於存在扮演了重要角色。 Hence Aristotle believes that form as well as matter plays a causal role in natural organisms. 36

3.物理學中的原因 亞氏的融貫系統中，解釋這些並不是他所需要證成的部分；它們都是預設的。 He does not say, for instance, either(1) that organisms are the products of intelligent design (as Plato and the Stoics believe), or (2) that they are the outcome of a process of evolution. 37

3.物理學中的原因 Aristotle does not say much more than what he considered to be ‘causal explanation’. He looks into the nature of things by offering a coherent explanation without further ado. Further ado would cause the bifurcation of creationism and evolutionism. 38

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 自然就是因內在原則（形式」而轉變。這是一個從潛在到實現的過程。 Aristotle studies nature as an internal principle of change and stability; and so he examines the different types of change (or ‘motion’; kinēsis) 。 39

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 His definition marks the importance of his views on potentiality (or ‘capacity’; dynamis) and actuality (or ‘realization’; energeia or entelecheia)。 40

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 The primary type of potentiality is a principle (archē) of change and stability. If x has the potentiality F for G, then (1) G is the actuality of F, and (2) x has F because G is the actuality of F. 41

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 Marathon runners, for instance, have the potentiality to run 26 miles because they have been trained to run this distance; hearts have the capacity to pump blood because this is the function that explains the character of hearts. In these cases, potentialities correspond to final causes (eventually, or after the process of growth). 42

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 潛在與可能不同。 Potentiality and possibility do not, therefore, imply each other. (1) Not everything that is possible for x realizes a potentiality of x. Perhaps it is possible for us to speak words of Italian (because we recall them from an opera) without having a potentiality to speak Italian (if we have not learnt Italian). 43

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 (2) Not everything that x is capable of is possible for x; some creatures would still have a potentiality to swim even if their environment lost all its water. 44

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 These points about potentiality help to clarify Aristotle’s definition of change. The building of a house is a change because it is the actuality of what is potentially built in so far as it is potentially built. 45

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 ‘That is potentially built’ refers to the bricks (and so on). The completed house is their complete actuality, and when it is reached, their potentiality to be built is lost. 46

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 The process of building is their actuality in so far as they are potentially built. ‘In so far’ picks out the incomplete actuality that is present only as long as the potentiality to be built (lost in the completed house) is still present. 47

4. 從潛在到實現的轉變 Aristotle’s definition picks out the kind of actuality that is to be identified with change, by appealing to some prior understanding of potentiality and actuality, which in turn rests on an understanding of final causation. 48

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權圖示 來源 / 作者 1-49 本作品轉載自Microsoft Office 2003 PowerPoint 設計主題範本，依據Microsoft 服務合約及著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。 7、9、11、14、15、17、18、21-37、39-48 The first predicates a ……of final causation. IRWIN, T.H. (1998, 2003). Aristotle. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/A022 依據著作權法第46、52、65條合理使用。瀏覽日期：2013/01/25。 49