Conversational implicature (II)

A case study of Love is a fallacy Politeness in C-E translation of business letters Face theory

Leech’s Politeness Principle (PP) The tact maxim minimize cost to other; maximize benefit to other • The generosity maxim minimize benefit to self; maximize cost to self • The approbation maxim minimize dispraise of other; maximize praise of other • The modesty maxim minimize praise of self; maximize dispraise of self  • The agreement maxim minimize disagreement between self and other; maximize agreement between self and other • The sympathy maxim minimize antipathy between self and other; maximize sympathy between self and other

Leech’s Politeness Principle (PP) (1)得体准则：尽量少让别人吃亏，尽量让别人多得益 (2)慷慨准则：尽量少让自己得益，尽量多让自己吃亏。 (3)赞誉准则：尽量少贬损别人，尽量多赞誉别人 (4)谦逊准则：尽量少赞誉自己，尽量多贬损自己 (5)一致准则：尽量减少双方的分歧，尽量增加双方的一致。 (6)同情准则：尽量减少双方的反感，尽量增加双方的同情。

Summary (2) As for praise and dispraise, try to get the fault yours; (1) As for benefit to other, try to express in a direct way; in case of cost to other, express in an indirect way; (2) As for praise and dispraise, try to get the fault yours; (3) If disagreement is unavoidable, try to use weak agreement first, then express it indirectly.

Application The non-observance of PP and humor; The observance of PP in business letters to achieve courtesy.

A case study of Love is a fallacy Please give examples to show the non-observance of the maxims under PP. What are the implicatures? What is the typical feature of this essay?

A case study of Love is a fallacy Para. 4 Para. 5 Para. 14 Para. 25-26 Para. 27 Para. 93 Para. 98 Para. 125 Para. 135 Para. 151 Para. 153

A case study of Love is a fallacy Love is a fallacy, because we can not use something logic to explain love; Polly chooses Petey as her boyfriend whom "I" always looked down upon. Polly chooses Petey only because he has a raccoon coat, which means nothing in "my" eyes.

Application in C-E translation of business letters The tact maxim E.g.:至于V8和V9的定价，因为这两款产品功能多，成本自然比V6高出很多，因此一些厂家因其生产过程复杂，对技术要求高而纷纷选择只生产V6，所以希望贵司可以综合考虑我方报价。 Original Version: As for the price of V8 and V9, these two kinds of products have more functions which accordingly ask for high technique and cost, that’s why many factories only choose to produce V6. Please take a comprehensive consideration about our quotation. Improved Version: As for the price of V8 and V9...Could you kindly take a comprehensive consideration about our quotation?

Application in C-E translation of business letters The generosity maxim E.g.:从下一次订单起，每次发货时我方可以免费给你方提供一件备用产品，以备不时之需。 Original Version: From next order, we will give you one piece of standby product for free in case that you are in great need of them. Improved Version: From next order, you will get one piece of standby product for free in case that you are in great need of them.

Application in C-E translation of business letters The approbation maxim E.g.:得知贵司经理在回国途中丢失了行李，广交会上所收集的产品资料也一并丢失，现附上所有产品目录一份，供你方参考。 Original Version: Your manager is so careless that he lost baggage at airport, and it is so pity that all catalogues are lost too. Now we enclose all of our catalogues for your reference. Improved Version: We are sorry to know that your manager lost his baggage as well as all catalogues at airport. Now for your reference all of our catalogues are enclosed again.

Application in C-E translation of business letters The modesty maxim E.g.:已知样品无线车载蓝牙V9出现倒车视频模糊现象，为了更好的了解产品问题，我方技术人员希望得到有关模糊视频的照片。 Original Version: The problem of blurry image caused by the sample Bluetooth car kit V9's reversing video is already reported to our technician who later requests to have your picture of blurry image for checking. Improved Version: We apologize for the problem of blurry image which is caused by the sample Bluetooth car kit V9’s reversing video and feel sorry for bringing you the inconvenience. The problem is already reported to our technician who requests to have your picture of blurry image for checking.

Application in C-E translation of business letters The agreement maxim E.g.:V6是我司目前热销的一款产品，因其功能实用操作简单而深受客户喜欢。但是贵司希望得到免费样品一台，我方无法提供。根据公司规定,样品需由客户购买而不能免费赠送。 Original Version: V6 is our most popular item for its practical function and simple operation. But we cannot offer you one sample for free, you should pay for it according to company’s policy. Improved Version: V6 is our most popular item for its practical function and simple operation. But I am sorry that the free V6 could not be offered according to the company’s policy. So could you kindly purchase one as a sample?

Application in C-E translation of business letters The sympathy maxim E.g.:已得知贵公司两方合伙人目前的纠纷。但我方希望此次下单的30%定金不会因此纠纷而推迟。因为在7月2日订单得到确认后，我方已经开始投入产品的生产。 Original Version: We know the dispute between you and your partner from your last letter. But we hope the 30% deposit of this order will not be delayed for the dispute. Since we already start to produce after we get your order confirmation. Improved Version: We are sorry to know the things about you and your partner. And we would appreciate for you transferring the 30% deposit in time since the production of car kit is already started after we get your order confirmation.  

Summary As for cost to other, express it indirectly; As for benefit to other, consider “you-attitude”; When it is other’s fault, try not to mention that and remember to show your consideration; When it is self’s fault, try to show apology and the possible measures taken to solve the problem; As for disagreement, first show your regret, and then express your idea indirectly; When something bad happens, do remember to show your sympathy.

Background 1950s, American scholar Goffman从戏剧的观点提出了面子行为理论，建立了礼貌模式。 他认为，人们的行为分为前台行为和后台行为两种。“脸面”是人类行为准则之一，渗透于人际行为之中。 显然，“面子功夫”是做给其他人看的“前台行为”。

Goffman同时指出，面子对于每个人都是神圣不可侵犯的。 面子的需求是相互的，一个人想要自己不丢面子，最保险的办法就是不去伤害他人的面子。

Austin and Searle: Speech Act Theory 1960s, Grice: Cooperative Principle 然而，格莱斯的合作原则和会话含义理论仍不能对语言本身的意义和语言的言外之力做出充分的解释

1970s, R. Lakoff 的礼貌三原则 不要强加于人(formality)；适用于交际双方权势和地位不均等的场合，如老师和学生、雇主和雇员之间 给对方留有余地和空间(hesitancy)；适用于交际双方权利地位平等，但社会关系不密切的场合，如商人与顾客 增进双方的友情(equality)；适用于好友、恋人之间

Brown & Levinson’s Face Theory (FST) 他们认为，如果人们在交际中要互相合作，说话时就要在保留面子方面进行合作。在交际中为了给自己面子，也为了保留对方的面子，最好的办法就是使用礼貌语言。 面子进一步分为积极面子(positive face)和消极面子(negative face)。前者指人们希望获得他人的肯定和赞许。后者指人们有自主的自由，不希望别人强加于自己，自己的行为不受别人的干涉或阻碍。

Face Theory (or FST/FTT) Who: Brown & Levinson Why: The relationship between indirect language and politeness is rather complicated. The social distance between the interlocuters and the need to be accepted by others also have impact on verbal politeness. Where: Universals in Language Usage: Politeness Phenonmena, 1978 Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage, 1987 What: Being polite is to save other's positive face and negative face.

Face 面子 Face is our public self-image. Positive face积极面子、正面面子: our need to be accepted and liked by others and our need to feel that our social group shares common goal. Negative face消极面子、负面面子: our right to independence of action and our need not to be imposed on by others.

Face 面子 Therefore, in actual communication, the speaker tries to build up the hearer's "positive face", while trying to avoid posing threats to the hearer's "negative face". ---何兆熊

Face 面子 But actually, the two kinds of face might be threatened in verbal communication. ---冉永平

Examples 儿子：妈，我想出去玩一下。 母亲：作业做完再说。 （threatening negative face) 甲：看我买的裙子怎么样？ 乙：还不错，挺时髦的。 (saving positive face) 丙：我觉得一般，颜色我不喜欢。 (threatening positive face)

甲：嘿，小乙，这个星期你和你先生到我们家来吃饭啊。我正好回来，我们大家碰碰头。 乙：别客气了。你只有两个星期的假期，一定有很多事情要做。 甲：除了休息以外，我没什么事情要做。你们来嘛，又没其他人。 乙：这次就别麻烦了，这样太花时间了。 甲：一点也不花时间，吃顿便饭嘛。 乙：我们还是来谈谈好了，不要吃饭了。 甲：来了怎么可以不吃饭呢。 丙：好了，别再客气了！这是很随便的。我们就想聚一聚，看看大家。你们一定要来的。 乙：你们太客气了，老是请我们吃饭。 甲：别瞎说了。就这样定了。 乙：好吧，那我们就来。要我们带点什么来吗？ 甲：不要带，一点也不要带。 乙：好吧，我们这次就全听你的了。

Comments overlaps of the maxims --- the tact maxim and the generosity maxim --- the agreement maxim and the sympathy maxim

Comments A senior male citizen: Ladies first. pragmatic paradoxes 语用悖论 E.g.: A: Let me carry those cases for you. B: No, thanks. I can make it myself. ... (It happens at the gate) Young lady: You first, please. A senior male citizen: Ladies first.

Comments Different cultures have different ideas about Face. E.g.: Excuse me. (In English, it's a case of threatening the hearer's negative face; while in Chinese, it is a typical way to show your politeness, no threatening at all.)

Comments Different cultures have different ideas about Face. E.g.: (at table) Chinese: Help yourself to some fish.... Don't stop. Take some... Native speakers: Help yourself. (Chinese face doesn't include negatvie face, because Chinese prefer to be accepted, acknowledged, and respected by others rather than satisfy other's need for independence社会同一性. While native speakers of English always try to save other's negative face个人自主性.)

Comments Different cultures have different ideas about Politeness. E.g.: Your oral English is so excellent. Chinese: No, I am actually so bad at it. (the modesty maxim) Native speakers: Thank you. It's not so bad. (the agreement maxim) (For Chinese, it is regarded as being polite to dispraise self, while in the western cultures, when the others praise us, we need to abide by the agreement maxim.)

Your Assignment Compare Leech's politeness principle with Gu's c.f. 顾曰国, 礼貌、语用与文化[J]《外语教学与研究》, 1992(4). Preview Chapter 6.

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