第４章 全球社會與 文化環境

Disney的在地化 Disney向來都在總部構思所有的產品，再出口到世界各地。進軍中國、印度、南韓等國後，開始修正「一體適用」策略

社會、文化及全球消費者文化 文化：所有社會機制下，人們所建立中生活方式，由世代相傳而形成 文化涵蓋意識與非意識的價值觀、信念、態度及象徵 文化分為物質文化(實體文化)，如衣服和工具與非物質文化 (抽象文化)，如宗教、知覺、態度、信念與價值 This slide introduces the different aspects of culture. Culture is acted out in social institutions or society. The goal of this slide is to help the student see that culture has a number of factors affecting it.

社會、文化及全球消費者文化 世界性文化源自各地文化間相互聯繫的機會增加，有助於「全球消費者文化定位」行銷工具的運用 認同某些文化的人，具相同消費特徵，並與特定產品相關，例如：速食文化、信用卡文化、PUB文化、咖啡文化等

態度、信念與價值觀 態度：經由學習對某特定標的有一致反應的傾向，也是相互關聯的信念所成的集合 信念：個人對生存之世界所持以為真、經組織過的知識 價值觀：持久的信念或感受，對某些特定行為模式或現象有其特別偏好 By accepting Hofstede’s definition of culture (the collective programming of the mind) it would make sense to learn about culture by studying the attitudes, beliefs, and values shared by a specific group of people. Values represent the deepest level of a culture and are shared by the majority of members. Within any culture, there are likely to be subcultures, that is, smaller groups of people with their own shared subset of attitudes, beliefs, and values. Subcultures may represent attractive niche marketing opportunities, i.e., vegetarians. Ex.: Japanese values include striving for cooperation, consensus, self-denial, and harmony. A Japanese belief is that they are unique in the world. Japanese youth believe that the West is a important source of fashion trends. Therefore, many Japanese share a favorable attitude towards American brands.

宗教 宗教是社會信念、態度及價值觀的一個重要來 世上主要的宗教：佛教、印度教、回教、猶太教、基督教（含羅馬天主教等支派） 宗教教義、崇拜方式、節日及歷史，都直接影響不同信仰的人對全球行銷活動的反應 McDonald’s does not serve beef hamburgers in India because Hindus do not eat beef. There were objections raised in the merger of Daimler-Benz and Chrysler relating to Jewish history and the Holocaust. Some Muslims have tapped into anti-American sentiment by urging a boycott of American brands due to U.S. military action in the Mideast following 9/11. Europeans are divided on the issue of referring to God and Christianity in a new European constitution. Strong Catholic countries like Ireland, Spain, Italy, and Poland are for inclusion. France and Belgium are strong advocates of separation of church and state. Europe’s politically active Muslim minority are resisting inclusion of Christianity in the EU Constitution.

審美觀 審美觀：對美醜、品味好壞、 猥褻標準等的共識 各國對吸引力、動人及品味的認定標準不同，審美要素也相同 視覺審美–解產品、商標符號或包裝顏色、外型 風格–不同地區的人對審美風格（如不同的複雜程度）會有不一樣的認知 Aesthetic elements that are seen as attractive in one country may be viewed differently in another.

顏色的意涵 在印度，黃色代表商舖 在中國，紅色象徵好運及節慶 在英美的婚禮上穿藍色的吊襪帶象徵忠誠

飲食偏好 文化對食物烹調及消費習慣的影響非常顯著 俄國人食用深海鱘魚所產的魚子醬 芬蘭餐廳隨處可見馴鹿菜餚 法國人覺得兔肉非常美味 日本則常以米飯和烤魚作為早餐 印度人在吃東西時不用餐具，而是用右手吃飯 Despite local preferences, there is evidence that global dietary preferences are converging. When time pressed families do not have time to prepare meals, fast food becomes more popular. Young people experiment with different foods. Global tourism has exposed people to pizza, pasta, and other ethic foods. Shorter work hours and tighter budgets are forcing workers to find a place to grab a quick, cheap bite before returning to work. Due to the backlash to fast food in France, especially le Big Mac, the French National Council of Culinary Arts designed a course on French cuisine and “good taste” for elementary students. The director of the council, Alexandre Lazareff, warns that France’s haute cuisine is under attack by globalization of taste. The French have a new buzzword, le fooding, to express the notion that the nation’s passion for food goes beyond mere gastronomy: “To eat with feeling in France is to eat with your head and your spirit, with your nose, your eyes, and your ears, not simply your palate. Le fooding seeks to give witness to the modernity and new reality of drinking and eating in the 21st century. Everything is fooding so long as audacity, sense, and the senses mix.”

文化對行銷的影響 文化公約數：存在於所有文化的共同項目 文化公約數：全球行銷人員可將行銷方案部分或全部標準化的機會所在 探尋文化公約數為不容忽視的行銷手法之一 The astute global marketer often discovers that much of the apparent cultural diversity in the world turns out to be different ways of accomplishing the same thing. Widespread shared preference for convenience foods, disposable products, popular music, and movies in the United States, Europe, and Asia suggests that many consumer products have broad, even universal, appeal. The cultural change and the globalization of culture have been capitalized upon, and even significantly accelerated, by companies that have seized opportunities to find customers around the world.

高脈絡與低脈絡文化 高脈絡文化 例如：沙烏地阿拉伯及日本 低脈絡文化 例如：瑞士、美國、德國 訊息大多存於溝通脈絡中 所有訊息都會明白顯示 強調背景、人脈、溝通者的基本價值 口頭承諾即是最佳保證 法律文件的作用不如責任和信賴感來得重要 重視個人信譽 例如：沙烏地阿拉伯及日本 低脈絡文化 所有訊息都會明白顯示 文字是溝通的主要工具 仰賴法律文化 重視非關個人的文件及信用 例如：瑞士、美國、德國 Japan, Saudi Arabia, and other high-context cultures place a great deal of emphasis on a person's values and position or place in society. In such cultures, a business loan is more likely to be based on “who you are” than on formal analysis of pro forma financial documents. In a low-context culture such as the United States, Switzerland, or Germany, deals are made with much less information about the character, background, and values of the participants. Much more reliance is placed upon the words and numbers in the loan application. Similarly, Japanese companies such as Sony traditionally paid a great deal of attention to the university background of a new hire; preference would be given to graduates of Tokyo University. Specific elements on a resume were less important. Insisting on competitive bidding can cause complications in low-context cultures. In a high-context culture, the job is given to the person who will do the best work and whom you can trust and control. In a low-context culture, one tries to make the specifications so precise that a builder is forced by the threat of legal sanction to do a good job.

高脈絡／低脈絡文化之比較

擴散理論：採用過程 創新的擴散理論：社會學者埃弗雷特．羅吉斯(Everett Rogers)提出 採用過程：消費者從認識新產品到接納或願意購買的過程 知曉 興趣 評估 試用 採用 In Diffusion of Innovation (1962) Everett Rogers described three concepts that describe the process by which an individual adopts a new idea: the adoption process, characteristics of innovations, and adopter categories. “New” means different things. A product already introduced in one market may be an innovation in another one. Products may be innovations in one market yet mature or declining in others. 1. Awareness. In the first stage the customer becomes aware for the first time of the product or innovation. An important early communication objective in global marketing is to create awareness of a new product through general exposure to advertising messages. Impersonal sources of information are most important at this stage. 2. Interest. During this stage, the customer is interested enough to learn more. The customer has focused his or her attention on communications relating to the product and will engage in research activities and seek out additional information. 3. Evaluation. In this stage the individual mentally assesses the product’s benefits in relation to present and anticipated future needs and, based on this judgment, decides whether or not to try it. 4. Trial. Most customers will not purchase expensive products without the “hands-on” experience marketers call “trial.” A good example of a product trial that does not involve purchase is the automobile test drive. For inexpensive consumer packaged goods, trial often involves actual purchase or the distribution of free samples. 5. Adoption. At this point, the individual either makes an initial purchase (in the case of the more expensive product) or continues to purchase—adopts and exhibits brand loyalty to—the less expensive product.

擴散理論：創新特質 創新即是新穎的東西，五個影響採用的創新特質包括: 相對優勢（例如：CD） 相容性（例如：Betamax） 複雜性（例如：多媒體電子產品） 可分割性（例如：美乃滋罐頭） 可溝通性（例如：飛利浦新型數位卡匣錄音機） 1. Relative advantage: How a new product compares with existing products or methods in the eyes of customers. The perceived relative advantage of a new product versus existing products is a major influence on the rate of adoption. If a product has a substantial relative advantage vis-à-vis the competition, it is likely to gain quick acceptance. Ex: compact discs vs. vinyl records. 2. Compatibility: The extent to which a product is consistent with existing values and past experiences of adopters. The history of innovations in international marketing is replete with failures caused by the lack of compatibility of new products in the target market. Ex.: VCR’s—Betamax and VHS. 3. Complexity: The degree to which an innovation or new product is difficult to understand and use. Product complexity is a factor that can slow down the rate of adoption, particularly in developing country markets with low rates of literacy. In the 1990s, dozens of global companies are developing new interactive multimedia consumer electronics products. Complexity is a key design issue; it is a standing joke that in most households, VCR clocks flash 12:00 because users don’t know how to set them. To achieve mass success, new products will have to be as simple to use as slipping a prerecorded videocassette into a VCR. 4. Divisibility: The ability of a product to be tried and used on a limited basis without great expense. Wide discrepancies in income levels around the globe result in major differences in preferred purchase quantities, serving sizes, and product portions. U.S.-size jars of Hellman’s Mayonnaise did not sell in South America. Less expensive, no refrigeration required, plastic packets were a hit. 5. Communicability. The degree to which benefits of an innovation or the value of a product may be communicated to a potential market. A new digital cassette recorder from Philips was a market failure, in part because advertisements did not clearly communicate the fact that the product could make CD-quality recordings using new cassette technology while still playing older analog tapes.

擴散理論：採用者類型 The first 2.5 percent of people to purchase a product are defined as innovators. The next 13.5 percent are early adopters, the next 34 percent are the early majority, the next 34 percent are the late majority, and the final 16 percent are laggards. Innovators: These consumers tend to be venturesome, more cosmopolitan in their social relationships, and wealthier than those who adopt later. Early adopters: Early adopters are the most influential people in their communities, even more than the innovators. Thus the early adopters are a critical group in the adoption process, and they have great influence on the early and late majority, who comprise the bulk of the adopters of any product. Several characteristics of early adopters stand out. First, they tend to be younger, with higher social status, and in a more favorable financial position than later adopters. They must be responsive to mass media information sources and must learn about innovations from these sources because they cannot simply copy the behavior of early adopters.

擴散理論：採用者類型 根據個人採用創新產品的程度來區分 創新者通常具有冒險精神及較廣的社會關係，也比稍後購買的初期採用者富有 早期採用者對產品的採用具有最重要的影響，不僅對初期或後期採用者具有相當的影響 特性：年輕、社會地位高、經濟狀況佳、經常蒐集並學習產品相關資訊、不愛隨波逐流 行銷最重要的工作：說服創新者和早期採用者購買新產品

太平洋邊緣國家的創新擴散 在亞洲高脈絡文化區（如日、韓、台），彼此文化相似，擴散率比低脈絡且多元文化的美國要快 此地區創新產品導入市場的速度較慢，但採用程度較快 如果想將國內頗受歡迎的產品，導入新興工業化國家或其他亞洲市場，產品的擴散程度可能會比在國內快 日本等亞洲國家最先採用新產品者比西方國家來得少，也較傾向於規避風險 消費者察覺他人已採用產品時，便會迅速跟進採用相同產品

社會與文化環境之行銷意涵 文化因素對全球消費品與工業品的行銷，均有相當的影響力 環境敏感度：產品隨不同市場的特定需求而改變的程度 產品的敏感程度：環境敏感度較低的產品，如積體電路 文化對消費行為及耐用產品的採購有顯著影響，且不受社會階級與收入等因素左右。消費產品對文化差異的敏感度，比工業產品更強 Environmental sensitivity is a useful approach to view products because it places them on a continuum. At one end of the continuum are environmentally insensitive products that do not require significant adaptation to the environments of various world markets. At the other end of the continuum are products that are highly sensitive to different environmental factors. A company with environmentally insensitive products will spend relatively less time determining the specific and unique conditions of local markets because the product is basically universal. The greater a product’s environmental sensitivity, the greater the need for managers to address country-specific economic, regulatory, technological, social, and cultural environmental conditions. The next slide illustrates this concept.

環境敏感度 The horizontal axis shows environmental sensitivity, the vertical axis the degree for product adaptation needed. Any product exhibiting low levels of environmental sensitivity—integrated circuits, for example—belongs in the lower left of the figure. Intel has sold more than 100 million microprocessors because a chip is a chip anywhere around the world. Moving to the right on the horizontal axis, the level of sensitivity increases, as does the amount of adaptation. Computers are characterized by moderate levels of environmental sensitivity; variations in country voltage requirements require some adaptation. In addition, the computer’s software documentation should be in the local language. At the upper right of Figure 4-3 are products with high environmental sensitivity. Food sometimes falls into this category because it is sensitive to climate and culture. As we saw in the McDonald’s case at the end of Chapter 1, the fast food giant has achieved great success outside the United States by adapting its menu items to local tastes. GE’s turbine generating equipment may also appear on the high sensitivity end of the continuum; in many countries, local equipment manufacturers receive preferential treatment when bidding on national projects.

Disney如何適應文化差異 中國遊客通常都是預訂套裝行程，旅行社多選擇可賺取最高手續費與佣金的安排 與迪士尼共進晚餐活動：提供50%折扣給安排自由行的旅行社 推出週邊商品 建造上海Disney樂園 Disney頻道：節目在地化 The U.S. soup market was dominated by Campbell Soup Company; 90 percent of the soup consumed by households was canned. Knorr was a Swiss company acquired by CPC that had a major share of the European prepared food market, where bouillon and dehydrated soups account for 80 percent of consumer soup sales. Despite CPC's failure to change the soup-eating habits of Americans, the company (now called Bestfoods and a unit of Unilever) is a successful global marketer with operations in more than 60 countries and sales in 110 countries. Coffee is a beverage category that illustrates the point. On the European continent, coffee has been consumed for centuries. By contrast, Britain has historically been a nation of tea drinkers, and the notion of afternoon tea is firmly entrenched in British culture. In the 1970s, tea outsold coffee by a ratio of 4-to-1. Brits who did drink coffee tended to buy it in instant form, because the preparation of instant is similar to that of tea. By the 1990s, however, Britain was experiencing an economic boom and an explosion of new nightclubs and restaurants. Trendy Londoners looking for a non-pub "third place" found it in the form of Seattle Coffee Company cafés. An instant success after the first store was opened by coffee-starved Americans in 1995, by 1998 Seattle Coffee had 55 locations around London. Starbucks bought the business from its founders for $84 million. By 2005, Starbucks had overcome the challenge of high real estate prices and had 466 locations in the United Kingdom.