Foundations of Planning 第三篇　規　劃 8 規劃的基礎 Foundations of Planning 各節重點 8.1 定義規劃的本質與目的 8.2 辨識組織目標的型態 8.3 比較目標設定的不同方式 8.4 討論現今在規劃上碰到的議題

8.1 何謂規劃 What Is Planning? 規劃 (planning) 是主要的管理活動之一，包含 : 定義組織的目標 擬定達成目標之整體策略 發展全面性的計畫體系，來整合與協調組織的活動 Planning - a primary managerial activity that involves : Defining the organization’s goals Establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals Developing plans for organizational work activities

正式規劃 Formal planning 明確定義特定期間的目標 Specific goals covering a specific time period 將目標形諸文字並公告組織成員週知 Written and shared with organizational members 管理者為何要做規劃呢 Why Do Managers plan？ 1.使成員瞭解為何而戰 Provides direction 2. 降低不確定性對組織的衝擊 Reduces uncertainty 3. 可減少資源重置與浪費 Minimizes waste and redundancy 4. 可以提供控制所需的標準 Sets the standards for controlling

規劃與績效之關聯 Planning and Performance 正式計劃會產生以下關聯 Formal planning is associated with: 正向的財務結果 - 高利潤及高資產報酬率 Positive financial results - Higher profits and returns on assets 計劃品質與適當執行較計畫的範圍更重要 The quality of planning and implementation affects performance more than the extent of planning 外在環境會減少計劃與績效間之關聯 The external environment can reduce the impact of planning on performance

8.2 目標與計畫 Goals and Plans 目標 (goals) 是個人、團體或整個組織所期望達到的結果，它提供所有管理決策的方向，並且是衡量實際績效的指標。 Goals (objectives) Desired outcomes for individuals, groups, or entire organizations Provide direction and evaluation performance criteria 計畫是記載目標如何達成的文件，包括資源分派、時程表及其他完成目標的必要行動。 Plans Documents that outline how goals are to be accomplished Describe how resources are to be allocated and establish activity schedules

目標的類型 Types of Goals 每個組織都會有其單一特定的目標，除了獲利外，還包括非營利組織對應某些族群的需求。 Every organizations have a single goal. Business want to make a profit and non-profit- organizations want to meet the needs of some constituent groups. 陳述性目標 (stated goals)，亦即正式陳述而希望讓不同利害關係人都相信的組織目標。 Stated Goals – Official statements of what an organization says, and what it wants its stakeholders to believe, its goals are. 實際目標(real goals)，密切觀察組織成員做什麼事即可知。Real Goals – Those goals an organization actually pursues. Observe what organizational members are doing. Actions define priorities.

計畫的類型 Types of Plans

計畫的類型 Types of Plans 策略性計畫 (strategic plans) 是應用於整個組織、建立組 織全面性的目標，與探尋組織在所處環境中定位的計畫。 Strategic Plans Establish the organization’s overall goals Seek to position the organization in terms of its environment Cover extended periods of time 明確說明組織將如何達到全面性目標的計畫則稱為作業性計 畫(operational plans)。 Operational Plans Specify the details of how the overall goals are to be achieved Cover a short time period

長期計畫 Long-Term Plans Time frames extending beyond three years. 短期計畫 Short-Term Plans Time frames of one year or less. Setting Market Share 特定性計畫 (specific plans) 定義清楚而不需要多作解釋， 它有明確的特定目標，而沒有任何模糊或易誤解之處。 Specific Plans Plans that are clearly defined and leave no room for interpretation. 方向性計畫(directional plans)是指建立一般準則的彈性 計畫，它指出目標之重點所在，但不會在特定目標與行動 方向上限制管理者。 Directional Plans Flexible plans that set out general guidelines and provide focus, yet allow discretion in implementation.

Setting Goals and Developing Plans 8.3 設立目標和發展計畫 Setting Goals and Developing Plans 傳統目標設定法 由高階主管設定一個目標，然後再分為組織各階層的細部目標。高階主管所設定之目標可指引員工努力，但也可能限制員工的表現。有時目標定義太廣，低階管理人為明確定義，自行加入自己的意見，以致目標有遭扭曲之虞。 Traditional Goal Setting Broad goals are set at the top of the organization. Goals are then broken into sub- goals for each organizational level. Goals lose clarity and focus as lower-level managers attempt to interpret and define the goals for their areas of responsibility.

Exhibit 8-2 The Downside of Traditional Goal Setting

手段目的鏈 Means-ends Chain 如果階層性的組織目標定義得夠清楚，可以形成一種整合性的目標網，我們稱之為「手段目的鏈」。 Means-ends chain — The integrated network of goals that results from establishing a clearly-defined hierarchy of organizational goals.

目標管理法 management by objectives, MBO 許多組織會採用目標管理法，這種管理由員工和經理人一起訂定明確的目標，定期檢視目標進度，並根據進度給予獎賞。 Management by Objectives, MBO Specific performance goals are jointly determined by employees and managers. Progress toward accomplishing goals is periodically reviewed. Rewards are allocated on the basis of progress towards the goals.

MBO 四個重要元素 Key elements of MBO : 明確的目標 goal specificity 參與式的決策制定 participative decision making 明確的成果展現及評估期限 an explicit performance/evaluation period 回饋 feedback

目標管理步驟 Steps in a Typical MBO Program

良好目標的特色 Well-Written Goals

目標設立的步驟 Steps in Goal Setting 1. 回顧組織的使命 Review the organization’s mission statement. Do goals reflect the mission? 2. 衡量現有資源 Evaluate available resources. Are resources sufficient to accomplish the mission? 3. 獨力或參考他人意見來設立目標 Determine goals individually or with others. Are goals specific, measurable, and timely? 4. 寫出目標並且傳達給所有必要的人 Write down the goals and communicate them. Is everybody on the same page? 5. 檢查結果以確定目標是否達成 Review results and whether goals are being met. What changes are needed in mission, resources, or goals?

發展計畫 Developing Plans 影響規劃的權變因素 Contingency Factors in Planning 下列三種權變因素會影響到規劃的進行：組織的層級、環境的不確定性，以及未來承諾投入時間的長短。 Three contingency factors affect the choice of plans： organizational level, degree of environmental uncertainty, and the length of future commitments.

管理人在組織中的層級 高階管理人之計畫傾向於策略性計畫 低階管理人之計畫傾向於作業性計畫 Manager’s level in the organization Strategic plans at higher levels Operational plans at lower levels 環境之不確定性 動態環境之計畫應明確且保持彈性 Degree of environmental uncertainty Dynamic environment: specific but flexible plans 未來承諾所需投入時間長短 承諾的概念 : 目前的計畫對未來投入獲承諾的影響程度愈高，則規畫的時間跨距就要愈長。 Length of future commitments Commitment Concept : Current plans affecting future commitments must be sufficiently long-term in order to meet those commitments.

規劃理論 Approaches to Planning 傳統理論下，規劃由正式規劃 (formal planning department)部門協助高階管理者進行，該部門由一群規劃 專員組成，負責協助訂定不同的組織目標，透過系統性的方 式，並經由協調過程產生。 Establishing a formal planning department Create a group of planning specialists that help managers write organizational plans. 規劃須與整個程序中更多成員產生關連，計畫經由各部門、 各層級的成員，因應其個別需求發展而來。 Involving organizational members in the process Plans are developed by members of organizational units at various levels and then coordinated with other units across the organization.

Contemporary Issues in Planning 8.4 Contemporary Issues in Planning 如何在動態的環境中有效規劃 How can managers Plan Effectively in Dynamic Environment？ 在不確定的環境中，管理者應發展出特定卻又有彈性的計畫。 管理者必須認清規劃是一個持續進行的過程，計畫就如行車 路線圖一樣，儘管目的地會因市場的情況而改變，但經理人 仍必須隨環境的變動做出必要的修正，這樣的彈性尤其重要。 Develop plans that are specific but flexible. Understand that planning is an ongoing process. Change plans when conditions warrant alterations.

管理者如何利用環境掃瞄 How Can Managers Use Environmental Scanning？ 環境掃瞄 (environmental scanning) 技巧，可以改善管理 者對外在環境的分析能力，該技巧主要是掃瞄所有資訊以發 掘未來的趨勢。 A manager’s analysis of the external environment may be improved by environmental scanning, which involves screening information to detect emerging trends. 環境掃瞄其中一個方式是蒐集競爭者情報 (competitor intelligence)，藉以提前掌握競爭者行動而非被動應對。 One of the forms of environmental scanning is competitor intelligence, which is gathering information about competitors that allows managers to anticipate competitors’ actions rather than merely react to them.

管理者的策略性決策應該依據公開的競爭者資訊，而非企 業間諜這類不良手段。 Much of the competitor-related information managers need to make crucial strategic decisions is available and accessible to the public. In other words, competitive intelligence isn’t corporate espionage. 公開的資訊來源包括： 廣告、促銷資料、新聞報導、網路資訊、產業研究、年報、 電子資料庫等。 購置競爭者產品，自行拆解後評估並確認競爭者的新技術。 The public information include : Advertisement, promotional materials, information on the internet, press releases, industry studies, annual report, electronic databases, and so forth. Many organizations even regularly buy competitors’ products and ask their own employees to evaluate them to learn about new technical innovations.

管理者必須在法令及道德的前提下，仔細注意資訊的來源。 Managers do need to be careful about the way information, especially competitive intelligence, is gathered to prevent any concerns about whether it’s legal or ethical.