三十年風水輪流轉﹕美國特殊教育的獨特在那裏？

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1 三十年風水輪流轉﹕美國特殊教育的獨特在那裏？
蔣伯川博士 威斯康辛大學 我36 年特教的生涯 各位女士先生﹕ 很高興有這個機會回母校與大家切磋交流特殊教育在美國的來龍去脈。在座各位了解，特殊教育這領域已經擴展得相當廣泛，既使是專家，也是在某些專門論題。 我今天選定的體目Samuel Kirk 1953 年早在特殊兒童一篇題為 “特殊教育的獨特在那裏?” 的文章到 2003年 特教期刊題為“特殊教育的獨特在那裏?” 的專集 ，這不是老生常談，三十年風水輪流轉也不表示原地踏步走，隨著時空與大環境演變，這個問題的意義不同，答案也不這麼單純。James Kauffman, University of Virginia argued 嚴重情障與行為障礙學童的教導需要的介入是普教無法也不該去提供的。 We conclude that special education is special for students with emotional or behavioral disorders and 尤其如果我們要大力地認真地把實證研究根據 儘早實施，長期在學生涯中實施， 回歸主流

2 引言﹕美國特殊教育的文化與社會背景 從文化的層次看殘障 H. G. Wells (1904) “The Country of the Blind. The One-eyed Man is King”--文化自大，智慧相對論 兩百多年前，Martha’s Vineyard 居民，1/155 聽障 許多的智障，學障，情障屬于社會人為定義 (social constructs) 從社會的層次看殘障 個人發展機會較多的美國 多元化每日益增的美國 對差異的包容性較大的美國 對隱私的尊重較多的美國 對獨立自主比較強調的美國 短篇小說在一個盲人的國度裏，獨眼龍稱王稱霸， 小說主角Nunez一天跌落山谷，以為一定粉身碎骨，沒想到奇跡出現，居然沒事，奇怪的是在這山谷小村的村民，男女老幼都是遺傳性倆眼失明， Nunez心想這下好了，在一個盲人的國度裏，我獨眼龍一定稱王稱霸了。幾天過後，他發現完全不是這麼回事，全村的人都認為Nunez與眾不同，那一支眼珠子會轉，眼皮會跳的眼睛有問題，需要動手術，連他的腦子也不正常，嚇得Nunez衝出醫院，急忙逃回山上。 這個簡單想象的故事傳達的信息是什麼呢？殘障並非絕對的，什麼是優勢，什麼是弱勢，因文化與社會背景而不同，說得直一點，我有一個眼，而你一個都沒有，並不等於我有文明，你沒有。第二個信息，我們千萬不可以為自己的文化是高人一等，在一個全是盲人的國度裏，獨眼龍不但令人疑惑，自己也疑惑。 一個距波士頓不遠的小島，200年前，1、155的居民有遺傳性耳聾，但是在那小島上，有聽障與沒聽障的居民相處地很和諧，一點歧視都沒有，大家都會手語，連會用口語的人彼此也爾用手語交談。那時候一般人上五年的學，有聽障的上十年，結果他們成島上教育水平較高的，識字有問題時，都去請教有聽障的。 1983 MR definition change from 1 SD to 2 SD, 10 times since 1921….1983, 1992, ASD by DSM which has been changed 5 times, 1952, 68,80, 87, 94. DSM-V is scheduled for 2012. 1.American dream 不是 書中自有黃金屋， 顏如玉， 也不是美國的月亮比較圓， 而是， 追求快樂是與生俱來， 不容置疑的基本權利。 殘障，殘廢， 遲鈍， 愚蠢 (idiot, moron)，奴子不可教 (EMR, TMR)， 朽木不可雕也 1.鐘鼎山林， 江山易改本性難移 Not only our wisdom is not total, there is yet much to be learned from others. 2.城鄉（南北差距，行政院公布擴大照顧弱勢族群促進社會和諧，公義社會原則 孟母三遷， 王華沛在特教論壇從身心障礙學生就學機會談十二年國政策一文很精闢地探討縮短差距的重要與挑戰。 特別的愛給特別的你 2 & 3.racial SES（社經文化不力）diversity – neurodiversity大熔爐，混齡班， 5。幼兒發展心理與老人福利政策都有影響It affects “transition” mandate.

3 特教與普教不同于: 使用有效教法 需要較高資源 處理挑戰行為 個別化的程度 早期介入性質 轉銜工作場所 立法司法角色
352 3-credit course for general educators including 15 hours of experience working with students with special ed. Oftentimes, in their papers they reflected how much patience they realized that special ed teachers need to have. 完全同意王華沛老師在特教論壇一篇呼諭普設立特教資源中心的文章裏提到的要求老師多些愛心與耐心是呼口號. More love and patience is necessary but not sufficient .for 特教專業, not unlike for 醫生

4 特教與普教不同于﹕使用有效教法 直接教學 (Direct Instruction, or DI)﹕直截了當，清楚明確，減少因為猜測，引申，假定造成的不必要錯誤。增加舉例說明與反覆演練，多用圖片，具體教具，循序漸進。 互動教學 (active learning)﹕避免填鴨式教法，鼓勵實際參與，在可預料的例行常規與新奇挑戰之間尋求平衡，注意學習了解在何時何地，妥當應用之類化能力。例如﹕PALS 人際關係與社交技巧 (social skills)﹕不僅依賴機會教育，納入固定課程學習，包括課外作業練習所學技巧。 實用生活技能(functional skills)改善生活品質與獨立自主。 強調學習策略 (learning strategies)﹕有效運用時間，記筆記，考試技巧，記憶妙訣。。。 重視如何教 (how to teach)，勝過教什麼 (what to teach) 理念，架式不同，見樹不見林。。。如何教孩子閱讀的爭論最激烈。 behaviorism vs. constructivism ( 建構理論 )水火不容。 discovery learning （發現式學習) or child-centered instruction (以孩童為中心的教學),. DI applied to social skills such as anger management DI Siegfried Engelmann & Douglas Carnine, University of Oregon Research-based instruction such as Peer Assisted Learning Strategies ( PALS) Retention and generalization of skills acquired– 學， 記 (mix new with old)，運用 (change setting, teacher) Social skill—role play (角色扮演), Skillstreaming Dishwasher, washer, dryer, kitchen in the classroom for CD students we need to be VERY aware of what we are teaching these kids (and why) and continuously

5 特教與普教不同于﹕需要較高資源 根據2005全美資料， 每一個普教學生一年教育經費美金 $6,556, 學障學生 $10,558, 多重障礙學生 $20,095.特教學生平均教育經費美金 $16,921. Child-count basis: 每一個特教學生，聯邦政府每年津貼，大約美金$700. 新趨勢將依據學生總人數(census basis) 決定津貼數量。 相關專業人員（物理治療師，職能治療師，語言治療師，社公人員，。。。) 與來回交通接送費用昂貴。 聯邦與地方政府責任爭執 Small class size, one-on-one, salary,助理老師 and 輔具, Resource integration (整合資源), including human resources, parent training, volunteers, employment

6 特教與普教不同于﹕處理挑戰行為 預防危機訓練 (Crisis Prevention Institute or CPI)
特教老師，六小時的訓練後，獲取特別執照，了解如何應對嚴重行為問題學生用口語和身體，預防傷害老師或其它同學。 訓練教如何下界限應對失控學生罵人，不服從—解釋什麼行為不妥，為何不妥，給學生選擇，給學生時間，準備執行規則。 訓練教如何防範失控學生出手打人，抓人，踢人，抓頭髮，如何控制，運送失控學生，如何求救。。。 $1499 for 2-weeks training. There is one especially designed for autistic students. 坐端正，手腳不亂動，眼睛大開，嘴巴閉上，耳朵聽清楚。 我們保證﹕ 1. 聽大人與彼此的話 2. 安全第一 3. 說話聲音溫柔 4. 好好照顧我們的東西 5. 永遠做好人（至少竟力而為)

7 特教與普教不同于﹕個別化的程度 個別化教育計劃 (IEP) 有法律效力的書面契約 根據特教需要量身製做的教學 學習成績的預估與保證
參與融合教育時間的明確計劃 理想與現實的差距 Crossing streets safely 70% of the time.

8 特教與普教不同于﹕早期介入性質 聯邦特教法明確規定，全美公立學校必須提供， 三歲到五歲的學前特教。
IFSP: 服務對象包括學童的家人，服務場所包括學童的家裏。 從學前特教轉銜到幼稚園。學前特教如何（那些變數 variables)預測爾後的發展。 有效的引薦 (refer)與評鑑 (evaluate)。 王華沛在特教論壇加緊幼托整合厚植國力提到需要政府投資學前教育，一針見血。

9 特教與普教不同于﹕轉銜工作場所 聯邦特教法規定十六歲起，IEP 包括轉銜工作場所， (威州規定十四歲起).
學校，家長，與有關社福，社服機關密切聯系 (Interagency Collaboration). 建立”單一窗口”（One-Stop Career Centers),減少家長到處奔波，增加協調效率。 增加轉銜工作場所長期追蹤研究(longitudinal research).

10 特教與普教不同于:聯邦特教法（IDEA）與司法判案至關重要的角色
特教學生(多半屬情障， 學障， 好動兒) 違背校規時，休學，開除額外規定。提供替代性高中( alternative high school)。 雙重標準的弊病。 給特教學生產生誤解，進入社會後反而不能適應。 Tuition is very high for alternate high school—sometimes also called last chance school.

11 美國特教發展未來趨勢 行為主義（behaviorism)與人本主義 (humanism)在理念與實用，繼往開來
責任績效(accountability)理所當然，談何容易 特教評鑑孩童缺陷而去彌補的模式開始受到挑戰。特教目的變成不是治愈或修理缺陷。 訓練學生自我了解(self-awareness),自我決定(self-determine)與自我導向(self-advocacy)大勢所趨 家長關注仍至關重要 兩大潮流，有時異曲同工，有時相互矛盾 成功的融合教育，除團隊合作有待落實外，亟需大量資源和相關配套設施，並且搜集學生學習成績的證據。 特教與普教的改革相輔相成--介入反應 (RTI)，進步檢測(progress monitoring)方興未艾，前景可觀。融合教育最理想的結果，正如謝韻如在特教壇生命的圓與缺提到的，是打破特教與普教的體制界限和兩元系統的對立。 Abraham Maslow & Rogers 強調人的正面本質和價值—equal opportunity, work together, open and whole, “Humanism with its relative and subjective values feeds systems like, I‘m OK. You’re OK. or Tolerance in a big way. No absolutes. Each person establishes his own system of values as he sees fit with no absolutes or external authorities” Dewey placed much importance on the function of the school in the democratic community. Dewey also thought of the school as a miniature society（學校像一個小型社會 ; it should not simply mirror the larger society but should be representative of the essential institutions of this society. The school as an ideal society is the chief means for social reform（縮影. Can be conflicts 矛盾 if not well managed – observable/measurable versus big pictures, 實證主義 vs 建構主義 Back to the future– rediscover instructional roots in history and bring them to the present and make them better, co-teaching and collaborative consultation are insufficient. Special ed is special for its individualization, research based, and recursiveness. Special ed teacher’s tool box is bigger. 責任績效的模糊與架空,教育政策隨政黨交換移動 identifying certain children based on what they can't do rather than on what they can do. knowledge about rights and responsibilities, practicing application of effective commuication and negotiation skills, and practicing accommodation and modification requests with general education teachers. Students identified and communicated their learning strengths, limitations, needs, and preferences to their teachers. Students approached their case manager no later than two days before a test or one day before a quiz to organize accommodations. Lastly, students gained independence in self-management of their education. They kept record of assignment and test dates in a daily planner; obtained passes to the CMC for educational assistance; took initiative in attempting work while requesting assistance only when assistance was needed; organized accommodation requests with teachers; regularly communicated with parents, teachers, and case managers to discuss grades and progress in classes; personally invited general education teachers to their IEP meeting; and even acted as the meeting facilitator in their own IEP meeting. The best predictor of which children would have more severe problems 3 years later was a measure of parental pessimism.  In other words, parents who had given up on their ability to influence their child's behaviors by the time the child was 3 years old were most likely to have children with more difficult behaviors later in life"

12 孩童缺陷模式與多元心智 北卡羅來拉大學小兒科教授，哈佛大學醫學院畢業的Mel Levine (1992) All Kinds of Minds , 發現不一樣的心智，呂翠華 翻譯(2008), Levine “一直致力於擴展社會大眾對於學習差異（learning differences）觀念的正確認識 。。。大人應多賞識孩子的優點及興趣，有時我們過度急於幫助孩子克服他們的弱點，卻忽略去仔細檢視及發展孩子的長處”。(呂翠華) 哈佛大學神經科專家 Norman Geschwind 假定 “學障孩子經常是左拐子， 有語言困難，但是在具有視覺與空間上 的優勢。” 艾氏症的北科羅拉多大教授Temple Grandin倡導多元性的神經系統 (neurodiversity)。

13 自我了解, 決定, 與導向 了解你自己的優點與缺點，與學習傾向 (learning style)–- 包括你的需要，不要過分注意標記， 尤其是多重的或者隱性的障礙 (LD,ADHD),但是要了解你的殘障對你在各方面的影響(impact)。 了解要有信心 (而非習得的無力感)，知道如何去（和向誰去)表達你的需要 (也是教育他人)和爭取你的權益和相關配套設施 (support services)。 了解你的權利與責任。 自我導向就是做選擇與做決定。自我導向不局限於學校，在家裏，在社會，工作場所都適用，自我導向，如同其它的技能，需要適當的教導與練習才會進步。 自我導向與個別化教育計劃 (IEP)

14 家長關注 Autism Speaks 2007年 募款﹕舉辦徒步認捐 ($27million)， 音樂會（$8 million),公司商店 ($2.2 million)。。。 支助研究﹕捐獻三千萬美金于自閉症研究 公共關係﹕用電視廣告（$81 million)，增加大眾認識. 影響政策﹕活動國會通過擊敗自閉症法，撥款&162 million。 主辦自閉症年會，900 專家參加。 It was founded in February 2005 by Suzanne and Bob Wright, the grandparents of a child with autism. Bob Wright is Vice Chairman, General Electric, and served as chief executive officer of NBC for more than twenty years.

15 家長關注 注意力不足好動兒協會Children and Adults with Attention Deficit/hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD)1987 年創立。 成立全美好動兒資源中心。 全美各地200 分會，20000 會員。 主辦年會， 1200 專家參加。

16 融合教育 根據哲學、道德或倫理立場--事關社會公義的原則，培養公理心，促進社會和諧。全盤融合 (full inclusion)-- Mara Sapon-Shevin， Stainback & Stainback 優質的團隊合作，特教學生的需求，是普教與特教老師的共同職責。有效的融合教育必須周詳計劃，專業付出，學校適應孩子，而非孩子適應學校。合作教學,知易行難。 融合教育牽涉無障礙學習環境，所有教材，教法，與教室的設計，包含彈性，選擇，與替代—”universal design”. 融合教育不可忽略維護正面的教室與學校氣氛 (climate). 融合教育對學障學生學習成績的證據不理想 James Kauffman, Illusion of Full Inclusion 全盤融合的迷思 Laurence Lieberman, Death of Special Education 特殊教育的終日 Syracuse University “Mara Sapon-Shevin “A Matter of Social Justice” “Inclusion is not about disability, nor is it only about schools.” It is about a much bigger picture. We can’t have a democratic society, if we don’t have inclusive schools. 是理念引導還是證據為主的最佳教法 Naomi Ziagmond, U of Pittsburg Special Education in Restructured Schools: Findings from Three Multi-Year Studies     Naomi Zigmond, Joseph Jenkins, Lynn Fuchs, Stan Deno, Doug Fuchs, Janice N. Baker, Linda Jenkins, and Martha Couthino Researchers from the University of Pittsburgh, University of Washington, Vanderbilt University, University of Minnesota, Mt. Vernon School District, WA, and Central Florida University studied three innovative models for providing special education services for students. Their report supports continuation of the continuum of services for students with learning disabilities, and finds no simple answers to the challenge of delivering services to children at risk. Laurence Lieberman Special education consultant Laurence Lieberman (1992) spoke out in a letter to the editor of Education Week. In it he states that "some educators would place the issue of full inclusion solely in the realm of morality. Anything separate is evil. There may be a higher immorality than separateness: lack of progress, lack of achievement, lack of skills, and splintered learning of meaningless academic trivia...Full inclusion is not the right thing to do. It is one right thing to do, sometimes...Any organization...that endorses full inclusion is taking an extremist position that has no place in an educational system and a society that prides itself on its choices and multiple ways to achieve a desired quality of life". Lieberman (1996) also states that "by definition, the regular classroom is where the academic curriculum rules. Consequently, full inclusion into regular classrooms for students with severe mental disabilities imposes both academic and school failure on them...some children with disabilities should not be in regular classrooms. Placing them there handicaps them even more. To have children with disabilities failing in the regular classroom is unacceptable...As long as there are people with disabilities there will be a need for special services that goes beyond anything a regular classroom teacher can ordinarily provide...the continuum of services must be preserved". Lieberman, L.M. (1992). In a letter to the editor, Education Week, December 16, 1992. Lieberman, L.M. (1995). Preserving special education for those who need it. In Stainback, W. & Stainback, S. (Eds.), Controversial issues confronting special education: divergent perspectives (pp ). Boston:Allyn and Bacon. Crockett, J. B., Gerber, M.M., & Landrum, T. J. (2007) Achieving the Radical Reform of Special Education: Essays in Honor of James M. Kauffman.

17 合作教學 (co-teaching) 的不同模式
一個老師講課，一個老師巡迴支助 較適于比較深奧學科，像數學，生物。。。普教老師精通 學科內容。 特教老師流動教室，提供支援，預防和解決行為問題。

18 兩個老師各負責一個教站， 有些學生自習，學生輪流移動于不同教站。
Station Teaching

19 平行教學—兩個老師教同樣的教材 Parallel Teaching

20 兩個老師合教 Team Teaching

21 介入反應 (Response to Intervention, RTI)
兩大目標﹕ 落實早期介入與預防 改進殘障評鑑方式 取代以智力與學習成績差異公式評鑑學障的缺陷典範 (deficit model). 降低標準化測驗之使用，即時提供學習困難者，逐漸強化的二或三層次有實證支持的介入，若學生在課程進步檢測反應不滿意，開始學障服務。 普教老師之負擔大增，對臨界學生的特殊需求，極為有利。平衡鑑定與教學之重要性。 網路為主的進步檢測扮演重大角色。 13%3.5% Margaret MacLaughlin “To be or not to be, that’s the question” Hamlet—Shakespeare 張心怡在特教論壇回歸特殊教育的本質一文提及太重視學生分類的結果，普通老師無轉介前介入的觀念。 教育政策隨政黨交換移動

22 第三級預防: 特殊教育 全校支助程序 ~5% 次要預防: 提供小班和個別 補習給有困難的 學生 ~15% 主要預防: 提供全面核心課程 給所有學生 大約80% 學生

23 結論:美國特殊教育的獨特… 不是在融合教育的風潮中專注合作教學( co-teaching) , 團隊諮詢 (collaborative consultation),合作學習(cooperative learning)，或調整課程與教法 (accommodations) 也不是在服務型式與服務人員型式或者與普教的關系中朝三暮四 地追逐時髦（shifts in service delivery patterns and staffing patterns for special educators and in special education‘s relationship to general education). 而是在教改的大環境中，重新找回它的教學根 (instructional roots)—個別化，以研究為基礎(data-based)，反覆演練 (recursive)。 把過去帶到將來 (back to the future)，增加一些對孩童和環境的敏感 （該改的改，該試的試)，把工具箱的工具添多一些，不斷地實驗。特教是一個年輕的卻具有研究歷史的學科，我們有能力自我調整錯誤，進行根本的特教改革(Kauffman, 1993, radical educational reform)。 Special ed technology of test-teach-test Laurence Liberman No individualization=“Death of special education”. accommodation = getting around disability, not going right at disability 繞著殘障打轉，而不是針對殘障下手。 James Kauffman, U of Virginia: Journal of Special Ed. 1999, “possible loss of special education's focus on the scientific understanding of instruction. “ Naomi Zigmond: One size does not fit all 一個尺碼不可能合每個人的身 Radical –in Latin is ”radix” –roots– investing in basic innovations that attend to fundamental pupil-teacher interactions that are at the core of effective instruction.