定性研究方法 王文宇 2011.12.

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1 定性研究方法 王文宇

2 Quantitative v.s. Qualitative
Quantitative research is empirical research where the data are in the form of numbers. Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers.

3 Chinese students’ perceptions of communicative and non-communicative activities in EFL classroom
This study reports the views of 30 Chinese university students on the appropriateness and effectiveness of communicative and non-communicative activities in their EFL courses in China. 1. What are the students’ perceptions of communicative and non-communicative activities in the EFL classroom? 2.What are the students’ perceived difficulties in an EFL class exclusively conducted by a teacher using CLT?

4 Procedures: 1.30 Chinese English majors answered a questionnaire about the use of communicative and non-communicative techniques in class and their difficulties in using communicative activities 2. 10 out of the 30 students were then chosen for interviews about their perceptions of communicative and non-communicative activities and the difficulties they had encountered while using communicative activities

5 More Examples of Qualitative Research
Wen (1995) examined two students who entered Nanjing University with similar entrance examination scores but differed greatly in Test for English Majors-Band 4. Through interview scripts, observation notes and the students’ diaries, she intended to find out why these two students showed such great differences in their achievement after two years’ study in university. 

6 More Examples of Qualitative Research
Wang and Wen (2002) intended to find out how L2 writers use their L1 in their L2 writing processes and whether the use of L1 changes with the L2 development. 16 English majors across four university levels participated in the study. They were asked to write an argumentative essay in English while thinking-aloud. They were also interviewed immediately after they finished the writing task.

7 More Examples of Qualitative Research
Hyland’s study (2003) explores the relationship between teacher feedback and student revision in two academic writing classes. Using data from teacher think aloud protocols, teacher and student interviews and student texts, it examines the extent to which teachers focused on formal language concerns when they gave feedback and the use that students made of this feedback in their revisions.

8 Collecting Qualitative Data
Interview Think-aloud Observation Diary

9 What is an Interview? A talk through which the researcher asks the interviewee a series of questions to find out some information about the interviewee.

10 What is an Interview? Open-ended questions
(face-to-face or by telephone) Researcher Interviewee Information (qualitative data)

11 Types of interviews Unstructured interview Semi-structured interview

12 Types of interviews Unstructured: interview questions are generated spontaneously in the natural flow of an interaction.

13 Types of interviews Semi-structured: an interview guide is prepared before the interview begins. The questions in the interview guide need not be taken in any particular order and the actual wording of questions is not determined in advance.

14 Types of interviews Structured: an interview guide is prepared. The questions are asked in the same sequence and the same wording.

15 Question Why do we need three types of interviews?

16 Types of interviews Unstructured interview: used for constructing interview guide Semi-structured interview: most often used Structured interview: used when multiple interviewers involved

17 Carrying out an Interview
Procedures: Step1 Preparing an interview guide Step2 Conducting the interview

18 Step1 Preparing an interview guide
Principle One: Interview questions ≠ research questions

19 Interview Guide Research question:
Do EFL learners experience anxiety in class? If so, what kinds of anxiety do they experience?

20 Interview Guide 1. Do you like English classes? How do you feel in class? 2. How do you feel when you are asked to answer questions in class? (Please describe your physical and emotional reactions, such as blushing, out of breath, voice shaking, dizziness, stammering, etc.) 3. How do you feel when you give presentations in class? 4. How do you feel when you cannot follow what your teacher is saying? 5. How do you feel when you make mistakes in class? 6. How do you feel when your teacher corrects your mistakes? 7. How do you feel when your classmates laugh at your mistakes?

21 Step1 Preparing an interview guide
Sources of questions Previous research Unstructured interview

22 Step1 Preparing an interview guide
Principle Two: Truly open-ended questions

23 Is this a good interview question?
While reading an English text and encountering an unknown word, do you turn to a dictionary, or ask the teacher for its meaning, or simply skip it?

24 Truly open-ended questions
Allowing interviewees to take whatever direction and whatever words they want in order to respond in their own way

25 Is this a good interview question?
While reading an English text and encountering an unknown word, do you turn to a dictionary, or ask the teacher for its meaning, or simply skip it?

26 Revised question What do you do when you encounter an unknown word while reading an English passage?

27 Task: Work out an interview guide
Research question: 教师学习英语的方法对其教学方法是否有影响？有何影响？

28 学习情况 中（小）学：1）何时开始学英语？2）老师采用何种教学方法、开展哪些课堂活动？3）这些方法和活动对你的英语学习有何作用？哪些方法和活动对提高你的英语水平特别有效？4）课后进行哪些学习活动？对提高英语有何作用？ 大学：1）有哪些英语课程？2）老师采用何种教学方法、开展哪些课堂活动？3）这些方法和活动对你的英语学习有何作用？哪些方法和活动对提高你的英语水平特别有效？ 4）课后进行哪些学习活动？对提高英语有何作用？ 教学情况 1）何时开始教学工作？教授哪些科目？2）采用何种教学方法、开展哪些课堂活动？3）你认为哪些方法和活动对提高学生的英语水平特别有效？为什么？4）是否建议学生课后学习？建议哪些课后学习活动？为什么？ 学习方式对教学方式的影响 你采用这种教学方法/活动是否受你当年学习经历的影响？

29 Step2 Conducting the Interview
What are the useful skills for conducting an effective research interview?

30 Step2 Conducting the Interview
Principle One: Using a well-prepared high-quality audio recorder

31 Step2 Conducting the Interview
Principle Two: Asking more questions than the ones listed in the interview guide.

32 Step2 Conducting the Interview
Principle Three: Using a conversational style. Requiring flexibility & Spontaneity to keep the interview: a) in a natural manner b) on the track

33 Step2 Conducting the Interview
Principle Four: Keep probing.

34 Probing a. silent probe: remaining quiet and waiting as the interviewee reflecting, gathering thoughts and preparing b. verbal probe: giving further guidance when the interviewee at the end of the thought c. echo probe: suitable use of repetition of words of interviewee to encourage them to continue e.g. I see, you ask your teacher the meaning of the unknown word. Then what else? d. Uh-huh probe: affirmative noise to encourage. e.g. “uh-huh”,or “yes, I see.”

35 Task: Comment on interviews
Listen to the interviews conducted by the student researchers and analyze the strengths and weaknesses in their interviewing skills.

36 Interview One: Listening strategies
采访者:同学,你好,本次采访是为了研究大学生使用听力策略的情况。您的回答对我们非常重要，请如实回答。本次采访不记名，结果仅用于学术研究。谢谢您的支持与合作！ 采访者:同学我想问一下你喜欢英语吗? 受访者:还行,一般吧 采访者:你是如何看待英语听力的呢 受访者:英语听力可以让我们了解一些课外知识 采访者:哦,好吧,那你一周在英语学习方面的时间大概是多少呢? 受访者:可能一到两个小时吧

37 Interview One 采访者:那如果按照就是平摊到每天来分呢,一天花在英语学习方面的时间是多少呢 受访者:可能10到15分钟左右
采访者:哦好,那你每周就是花在英语听力方面的时间是多少 受访者:应该也是10到15分钟左右,因为一直在看美剧 采访者:就是每周,10到15分钟?那每天呢 受访者:不是,每天10到15分钟 采访者:那每周呢? 受访者:每周乘一下就是了

38 Interview One 采访者:能给一个确切的大概时间吗 受访者:一个小时吧
采访者:一个小时左右是吧,好,那第三个问题,您对听力提高设立什么目标了吗 受访者:好像没有 采访者:没有什么目标,那为什么呢 受访者:平时就是看看美剧而已,觉得够用就行了 采访者:那就是把美剧作为英语听力提高的重要方法是吧,唯一方法,应该说 受访者:恩对差不多

39 Interview One 采访者:我想问一下你是选择何种材料来提高自己的听力能力呢 受访者:一般就是盯着一个经常看的电视剧,不停地循环地看
采访者:不停循环看,大概会看多少遍呢 受访者:到目前为止,Friends 一到九季看到了第4遍了 采访者:恩,第四遍,那除了friends呢 受访者:其他的都是看看情节,看friends的时候就会比较注重他的发音

40 Interview One 采访者:英语电视剧的话除了美剧,当然还有英剧,英剧你会看吗
受访者:不会,因为资源比较少,其次我也不想学那个英式发音 采访者:哦好,那为什么就是你要以美剧作为你听力提高的材料呢 受访者:因为资源比较广嘛,比较容易得到 采访者:除此之外还有什么呢 受访者:其他的就是美剧比较容易贴近美国人的日常生活吧 采访者:日常生活? 受访者:恩对

41 Interview One 采访者:还有什么呢,有什么补说的吗 受访者:没有了
采访者:恩好的,那接下来,我想问一下当你在听英语听力的时侯,万一遇到新的单词你会怎么办 受访者:反正看的时候就把那个翻译软件放在边上开着呗,然后碰见不认识的就查一查,看一下它的意思就行 采访者:是每个单词都查吗 受访者:不会,就碰见不认识的,新见的 采访者:不是,每个生词都会查吗 受访者:基本上吧

42 Interview One 采访者:哦就是 听到不懂的然后就直接查还是整篇听完了再查 受访者:听到了就查呀 采访者:哦好,不会猜测它的意思吗
受访者:会猜 采访者:那就是猜和查字典 受访者:不是遇到一个生词立马就去查,就是说觉得这个生词多次出现,然后觉得有必要了解一下就会去查一下

43 Interview One: Listening strategies
采访者:同学,你好,本次采访是为了研究大学生使用听力策略的情况。您的回答对我们非常重要，请如实回答。本次采访不记名，结果仅用于学术研究。谢谢您的支持与合作！ 采访者:同学我想问一下你喜欢英语吗? 受访者:还行,一般吧 采访者:你是如何看待英语听力的呢 受访者:英语听力可以让我们了解一些课外知识 采访者:哦,好吧,那你一周在英语学习方面的时间大概是多少呢? 受访者:可能一到两个小时吧

44 Interview One 采访者:那如果按照就是平摊到每天来分呢,一天花在英语学习方面的时间是多少呢 受访者:可能10到15分钟左右
采访者:哦好,那你每周就是花在英语听力方面的时间是多少 受访者:应该也是10到15分钟左右,因为一直在看美剧 采访者:就是每周,10到15分钟?那每天呢 受访者:不是,每天10到15分钟 采访者:那每周呢? 受访者:每周乘一下就是了

45 Interview One 采访者:能给一个确切的大概时间吗 受访者:一个小时吧
采访者:一个小时左右是吧,好,那第三个问题,您对听力提高设立什么目标了吗 受访者:好像没有 采访者:没有什么目标,那为什么呢 受访者:平时就是看看美剧而已,觉得够用就行了 采访者:那就是把美剧作为英语听力提高的重要方法是吧,唯一方法,应该说 受访者:恩对差不多

46 Interview One 采访者:我想问一下你是选择何种材料来提高自己的听力能力呢 受访者:一般就是盯着一个经常看的电视剧,不停地循环地看
采访者:不停循环看,大概会看多少遍呢 受访者:到目前为止,Friends 一到九季看到了第4遍了 采访者:恩,第四遍,那除了friends呢 受访者:其他的都是看看情节,看friends的时候就会比较注重他的发音

47 Interview One 采访者:英语电视剧的话除了美剧,当然还有英剧,英剧你会看吗
受访者:不会,因为资源比较少,其次我也不想学那个英式发音 采访者:哦好,那为什么就是你要以美剧作为你听力提高的材料呢 受访者:因为资源比较广嘛,比较容易得到 采访者:除此之外还有什么呢 受访者:其他的就是美剧比较容易贴近美国人的日常生活吧 采访者:日常生活? 受访者:恩对

48 Interview One 采访者:还有什么呢,有什么补说的吗 受访者:没有了
采访者:恩好的,那接下来,我想问一下当你在听英语听力的时侯,万一遇到新的单词你会怎么办 受访者:反正看的时候就把那个翻译软件放在边上开着呗,然后碰见不认识的就查一查,看一下它的意思就行 采访者:是每个单词都查吗 受访者:不会,就碰见不认识的,新见的 采访者:不是,每个生词都会查吗 受访者:基本上吧

49 Interview One 采访者:哦就是 听到不懂的然后就直接查还是整篇听完了再查 受访者:听到了就查呀 采访者:哦好,不会猜测它的意思吗
受访者:会猜 采访者:那就是猜和查字典 受访者:不是遇到一个生词立马就去查,就是说觉得这个生词多次出现,然后觉得有必要了解一下就会去查一下

50 Interview Two: Teacher feedback
B：ok. A：那我们现在就开始聊一聊，你原来，以前上大学的时候有写作课吧，就是英语写作课 B：有 A：那这都上了多长时间啊 B：两个学期

51 Interview Two: Teacher feedback

52 Interview Two: Teacher feedback
B：老师一般写些什么啊，比如说你的例子不够充分的支持你的论点，或者分论点，他就会说例子不够powerful什么的

53 Interview Two: Teacher feedback

54 Interview Two: Teacher feedback

55 Interview Two: Teacher feedback
A: 嗯，那你觉得他这种语气呢，比如说，老师说你这个整篇文章还是not bad，然后…… B: 不会说这样的话，很简洁 A: 就直接一针见血，说你问题在哪？ A: 那你就是通过这两个学期吧，是不是都是一个老师上的 B: 不是，是两个

56 Interview Two: Teacher feedback

57 Interview Two: Teacher feedback

58 Interview Two: Teacher feedback

59 Interview Two: Teacher feedback

60 Interview Two: Teacher feedback
B：ok. A：那我们现在就开始聊一聊，你原来，以前上大学的时候有写作课吧，就是英语写作课 B：有 A：那这都上了多长时间啊 B：两个学期

61 Interview Two: Teacher feedback

62 Interview Two: Teacher feedback
B：老师一般写些什么啊，比如说你的例子不够充分的支持你的论点，或者分论点，他就会说例子不够powerful什么的

63 Interview Two: Teacher feedback

64 What is think-aloud? Subjects are required to speak out their inner thoughts while performing a certain language task. It can gain access to the inner thoughts (cognitive process) of subjects. Useful but difficult to carry out.

65 Example: think-aloud in a reading task
When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get good scores on certain kinds of tests or even the ability to do well in school. By intelligence we mean a way of living and behaving, especially in a new or upsetting situation. If we want to test intelligence, we need to find out how a person acts instead of how much he knows what to do.

66 Example: think-aloud in a reading task
For instance, when in a new situation, an intelligent person thinks about the situation, not about himself or what might happen to him. He tries to find out all he can, and then he acts immediately and tries to do something about it. He probably isn't sure how it will all work out, but at least he tries. And, if he can't make things work out right, he doesn't feel ashamed that he failed; he just tries to learn from his mistakes. An intelligent person, even if he is very young, has a special outlook on life, a special feeling about life, and knows how he fits into it.

67 Example: think-aloud in a reading task
If you look at children, you'll see great difference between what we call "bright" children and "not-bright" children. They are actually two different kinds of people, not just the same kind with different amount of intelligence. For example, the bright child really wants to find out about life - he tries to get in touch with everything around him. But, the unintelligent child keeps more to himself and his own dream-world; he seems to have a wall between him and life in general.

68 这是一个三段的文章，我一般看一下首句是什么。看它是不是符合那种总分结构的文章。When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get good scores on certain kinds of tests or even the ability to do well in school. For instance, If you look at children, 哦显然，不是很明显的总分结构，那我只能一句一句的念了。When we talk about intelligence, we do not mean the ability to get good scores on certain kinds of tests or even the ability to do well in school. 哦，这是讲了就是intelligence。By intelligence we mean a way of living and behaving, especially in a new or upsetting situation. 哦，它是说，我们指的这个智商方面的东西是讲一种生活呀，行为的一种方式。尤其是面对一种新的或者是让人觉得upsetting 的situation。

69 If we want to test intelligence, we need to find out how a person acts instead of how much he knows what to do. 哦，原来测试智商是要查出这个人，他是怎么样，他是怎么样行为，而不是他知道了多少，那我们现在的教育更多方面的是告诉了你是什么，然后以知道多少，在试卷上反应出多少来衡量，而没有给出一个实际情况，来考查他实际解决问题的能力。以前我们有个高老师告诉我们要，learn to be 和learn to do is the most important thing, 而不光指是你积累了多少知识。

70 For instance, when in a new situation, an intelligent person thinks about the situation, not about himself or what might happen to him.举个例子，when in a new situation, an intelligent person thinks about the situation, not about himself or what might happen to him。不光考虑他自己的问题，He tries to find out all he can, and then he acts immediately and tries to do something about it. 哦，他试图去发现他所能做的，然后积极的行动起来去解决问题。这就想到了以前的一个心理老师说，在遇到问题时，不是应该回避，或者一直在想怎么办，而是要理出一个头绪，知道我现在唯一能做的事情是什么，然后立即付诸行动。恩。

71 He probably isn't sure how it will all work out, but at least he tries
He probably isn't sure how it will all work out, but at least he tries. 他可能不知道会有什么用，但他至少行动了，试过了。这个，以前不知那个名人说过一句话，如果我无所畏惧，我会怎么样去做，大概就有点那个意思。And, if he can't make things work out right, he doesn't feel ashamed that he failed; he just tries to learn from his mistakes.这句话我很赞同，就是在做错事情的时候，一点都不要觉得羞愧的，至少我试过，我就没有什么可后悔的。就是我们有些同学的话，比如上口语课也好，他们就不敢说，不敢开口，然后，我会很积极的去说，尽管我的话里面会有很多的错误，但是我还是为我自己能这样积极说而感到自豪的

72 If you look at children, you'll see great difference between what we call "bright" children and "not-bright" children. If you look at children, you'll see great difference 聪明的孩子和不聪明的孩子有很大的区别，以前解剖老师说，聪明的孩子，很聪明的小孩子，思维很敏捷，解剖学上表现出来就是，眼珠转的特别快。这就是为什么看某些，反应稍微慢一点的孩子，常会有些行动缓慢，可能这中间还真有些联系。They are actually two different kinds of people, not just the same kind with different amount of intelligence. they are actually two different kinds of people, not just the same kind with different amount of intelligence.哎，这句话，他们是不同类型的人，不光光是同一种类型，但是在智商的程度上，仅仅是在智商的程度上有区别，这个要看一下它指的是什么意思，看一下他举的例子可能就会知道。

73 For example, the bright child really wants to find out about life - he tries to get in touch with everything around him. 哦聪明的孩子常常会试图去发现生活是什么，他会试着和，试着介入生活周边的一些事情。But, the unintelligent child keeps more to himself and his own dream-world; he seems to have a wall between him and life in general.但是，不聪明的孩子，常常有更多是封闭在自己的一个世界里面，和外面的世界有一道墙。但是这个我就不是很认同了。intelligent child，有些孩子，他看了很多的书，他会有自己的世界，自己的精神世界，书可能就是他的精神世界，这样的孩子和周围的孩子就会有很多，就会缺少共同语言。这样的话，就会导致他封闭在自己的一个世界里面，你不能说这样的孩子是不聪明的或者说是智商低下的，这样的人会有自己的一些成就

74 就像那个叫什么，春风化雨这部影片中的那个小男孩，那个男主角，他特别喜欢诗，也读了很多诗，也特别喜欢教他诗的那个老师，但他的父母特别想让他学医，从而使他封闭在自己的世界里面。他这方面的造诣很高，如果外界给他很多肯定的话，他一定是一个很有用的人，但是外界往往不理解他，不支持他，最后只能逼他走向死亡。所以，我觉得这句话可能，the unintelligent child keeps more to himself..对这句话不是很认同，不觉的它很对。但不管怎么说，聪明的，按照现实的观点来讲，聪明的和不聪明的孩子，或者说，一个更懂得去生活的一个孩子，就会试图去找到自己的方向，然后积极的去发现许多方式，就现实来讲的话，以一种积极的生活态度的话，确实去发现人生的目标，然后积极的去付诸行动，积极插入进去，是有道理的.

75 整篇文章读下来，不觉的很难，但是，如果说，如果说有区别于我们平常考试的文章，平常考试的文章有三段，条理很清楚，每一段都总起句，中心句，然后按照中心句展开，它有点更像我们日常生活中所读的那种散文，小品文，读起来感觉还挺不错的。

76 How is think-aloud carried out?
Principle One: Selecting “ideal” subjects

77 1) Selecting “ideal” subjects
Criteria: talkative, capable of thinking- aloud after proper training Three stages: 1. Select subjects for training personality-- talkative 2. Select subjects for think-aloud easiness and willingness 3. Select subjects for data analysis pauses less than 10%

78 How is think-aloud carried out?
Principle Two: Providing sufficient and proper training

79 2) Providing effective training
Demonstration & explanation choose a task that is not related to the study Practices use the real task

80 江中 王圣俞南游，泊舟江心，既寝，视月明如练，未能寐，使童仆为之按摩。忽闻舟顶如小儿行，踏芦席作响，远自舟尾来，渐近舱户。虑为盗，急起问童，童亦闻之。问答间，见一人伏舟顶上，垂首窥舱内。大愕，按剑呼诸仆，一舟俱醒。告以所见。或疑错误。俄响声又作。群起四顾，渺然无人，惟疏星皎月，漫漫江波而已。众坐舟中，旋见青火如灯状，突出水面，随水浮游，渐近船则火顿灭。即有黑人骤起屹立水上，以手攀舟而行。众噪曰：“必此物也！”欲射之。方开弓，则伏水中不可见矣。问舟人，舟人曰：“此古战场，鬼时出没，其无足怪。”

81 1) Selecting “ideal” subjects
Attention: Choose more than the required number for training.

82 2) Providing effective training
Individual or group training?

83 How is think-aloud carried out?
Principle Three: Using high-quality audio recorder

84 3) Using a high-quality recorder
Check carefully beforehand the sound effect, new batteries, etc. Aim: not to disturb the flow of subject’s thoughts

85 How is think-aloud carried out?
Principle Four: Behaving professionally

86 4) Behaving professionally
Observant but not disturbing Dos: 1. Take notes 2. Remind subjects at long pauses Don’ts: 1. Ask questions 2. Move frequently

87 Limitations Not natural Not generalizable—subjects too selective
Not accurate—thoughts faster than words

88 References 《外语教学中的科研方法》(刘润清，1999，外语教学与研究出版社)
《应用语言学研究方法与论文写作》(文秋芳，2001，外语教学与研究出版社) Research Methods for English Language Teachers (McDonough, J. & McDonough, S. 2000, 外语教学与研究出版社) Research Methods in Language Learning (Nunan, D. 1994, CUP)

89 References Second Language Research: Methodology and Design (Mackey, A. & Gass, S. M. 2005, Lawrence Erlbaum) Qualitative Research in Applied Linguistics (Heigham, J. & Croker, R. A. 2009, Palgrave Macmillan)