第二章 水資源管理與污染防治 第二節 水污染防治之探討 第二章 水資源管理與污染防治 第二節 水污染防治之探討

Core Case Study: Using Nature to Purify Sewage(利用自然以淨化污水) Ecological wastewater purification by a living machine.藉活化機器以生態式淨化污水。 -Uses the sun and a series of tanks containing plants, snails蝸牛, zooplankton浮游動物, crayfish淡水螯蝦, and fish (that can be eaten or sold for bait餌). 使用陽光及一系列水槽，內含植物、蝸牛、浮游動物、浮游動物、淡水螯蝦、魚（即可食用或出售為餌）。 Figure 19-1

重 要 觀 念 Types, sources, and effects of water pollutants Major pollution problems of surface water Major pollution problems of groundwater Reduction and prevention of water pollution Drinking water quality

水污染之意義與類別 一、水污染之意義 於地表水或地下水水質所發生之物理、化學或生物性變化，而會對有機物之生存產生不良影響或使水質污濁不堪使用之謂。 二、水污染之類別 （一）定點來源（point sources）：   污物集中放流至固定地區，有跡可循，管制、處理較易。如：下水道 （二）非定點來源（nonpoint sources）： 污物分散放流至廣大地區，無跡可循，管制、處理較難。如：農、工逕流

Major Water Pollutants and Their Effects主要水污染物及其影響 A fecal coliform bacteriatest is used to indicate the likely presence of disease-causing bacteria in water. 排泄物大腸菌群測試是用來說明在水中可能存在的致病細菌。 Figure 21-2

Types, Effects and Sources of Water Pollution水污染的類型、影響及來源 Point sources 點源 Refer to Tables 22-1 and 22-2 p. 492 and 493 Nonpoint sources 非點源 Fig. 22-3 p. 494 Water quality 水質

Point(點源) and Nonpoint Sources(非點源) Rural homes 農宅 Urban streets 市街地 Cropland 耕地 Animal feedlot 畜養場 Suburban development郊區開發 POINT SOURCES Factory 工廠 Wastewater treatment plant 污水處理廠

三、水污染的來源 The leading sources of water pollution are agriculture, industries, and mining.水污染的主要來源是農業，工業和採礦業。 1. Agricultural activities are the leading cause of water pollution from erosion, overgrazing, fertilizers and pesticides, and excess salt from irrigated soils.農業活動是水污染的主要原因，這些來自於：侵蝕，過度放牧，化肥和農藥，灌溉土壤中過量的鹽。 2. Industrial facilities are another large source of water pollution, and mining is a third source. 大型工業設施是另一個主要的水體污染源，採礦則是第三個來源。

A. Water is polluted by infectious bacteria, inorganic and organic chemicals, and excess heat. 水污染是因細菌感染、無機和有機化學品、多餘的熱 1. Water pollution is any chemical, biological, or physical change in water quality that has a harmful effect on living organisms.水污染是指水質產生化學、生物或物理變化，此對生物體有害的影響。 2. Table 19-1 lists the major classes of water pollutants and their major human sources and harmful effects.表19-1列出了主要水污染物類別及其主要人類來源和有害影響。 3. The WHO estimates that 3.4 million people die prematurely each year from waterborne diseases.世衛組織估計，每年從飲水傳染疾病而過早死亡有340萬人，。 4. In the U.S., an estimated 1.5 million people a year become ill from infectious agents(傳染媒介). 在美國，估計有150萬人因傳染媒介而生病。

四、主要的水污染物質 （一）傳染源-INFECTIOUS AGENTS Examples: Bacteria(細菌), viruses(濾過性病毒), protozoa(原生動物), and parasitic worms(寄生蟲) Major Human Sources: Human and animal wastes(人畜廢棄物) Harmful Effects: Disease(疾病) measuring the number of colonies菌落 of fecal coliform bacteria (大腸菌)present in a water sample. （EX美國菠菜遭水污染事件）

（二）耗氧性廢污 OXYGEN-DEMANDING WASTES Examples: Organic waste such as animal manure(堆肥) and plant debris(殘枝) that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen-requiring) bacteria(由需氧菌分解) Major Human Sources: Sewage下水道污物, animal feedlots(畜養場), paper mills造紙廠, and food processing facilities(食品加工廠) Harmful Effects: Large populations of bacteria decomposing(細菌分解) these wastes can degrade water quality by depleting減少 water of dissolved oxygen(溶解氧). This causes fish and other forms of oxygen-consuming aquatic life(水生物) to die.

（三）水溶性無機化學製品 INORGANIC CHEMICALS Examples: Water-soluble 1) acids, (2) compounds of toxic metals(有毒金屬化合物) such as lead (Pb鉛), arsenic (As砷), and selenium Se硒), and (3) salts such as sodium chloride (NaCl) in ocean water and fluorides (F–氟化物) found in some soils Major Human Sources: Surface runoff, industrial effluents放流物, and household cleansers(清潔劑) Harmful Effects: Can (1) make fresh water unusable for drinking or irrigation, (2) cause skin cancers and crippling spinal and neck damage (F–), (3) damage the nervous system (神經系統), liver, and kidneys(腎) (Pb and As), (4) harm fish and other aquatic life, (5) lower crop yields, and (6) accelerate corrosion of metals exposed to such water.(加速水中金屬腐蝕)

（四）有機養料 PLANT NUTRIENTS Examples: Water-soluble compounds(水溶性化合物) containing nitrate (NO3 – 硝酸鹽), phosphate (PO43– 磷酸鹽), and ammonium (NH4+ 氨鹽基) ions(離子) Major Human Sources: Sewage, manure堆肥, and runoff of agricultural and urban fertilizers Harmful Effects: Can cause excessive growth of algae(海藻) and other aquatic plants, which die, decay, deplete water of dissolved oxygen, and kill fish. Drinking water with excessive levels of nitrates lowers the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and can kill unborn children and infants (“blue baby syndrome”併發症).

五、水質之衡量 以BOD測量-biological oxygen demand生物需氧量 (BOD), the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by aquatic水生物 decomposers分解. 係指在定溫20℃（68℉）之下，將定量的水置放經五日潛伏期，觀察需氧分解菌破壞有機物質所需耗用氧量的多寡。 °

Water Quality Do (ppm) at 20˚C Good 8-9 Slightly polluted 6.7-8 Moderately polluted 4.5-6.7 Heavily polluted Below 4.5 Gravely polluted Below 4 溶氧度，是用來測量在一大氣壓， 20˚C時液體中的溶氧含量，最常用的兩種測量單位是ppm，或飽和百分率(%)-也就是溶解在1公升水中的溶氧百分率

六、河川、湖泊、水庫之污染 水的自清作用：污物一旦進入水體當中，會歷經四個程序，即： 稀釋 == > 生物性分解 == > 擴散 == > 沉澱 1. A combination of dilution(稀釋) and biodegradation(生物性分解) can allow recovery（復育） of stream pollution if they are not overloaded(未過渡污染), or have reduced flow(未流量降低) due to damming(築壩), agricultural diversion, or drought(乾旱). 一個稀釋、生物性分解組合，可以允許污染河流恢復，如果他們未因過渡污染，或因築壩，農業取水，或乾旱而減少流量（流量未降低，河川仍有自淨能力）。

水的自清作用影響要素(續) 2. The breakdown of pollutants(污染物的分解) by bacteria creates an oxygen sag curve(氧氣消減曲線). Organisms that have a high oxygen demand can’t survive in the curve. 。藉由細菌分解污染物的過程，產生了氧氣凹陷曲線。具有較高的氧需求的生物體因而無法存在該曲線中。 3. Volume of the stream, volume of wastes entering, flow rate, temperature, and pH levels all affect how great a sag curve is produced. 23。河流體積，廢棄物進入量，流速，溫度和pH值的水準，都會影響凹陷曲線產生程度。

水體之流量、流速，將影響污物稀釋、耗氧廢料之生物性分解情形 1.流量、流速↑  DO↑ 少量污物稀釋力、耗氧廢料之生物性分解力↑ 2.流量、流速↓  DO↓ 大量污物稀釋力、耗氧廢料之生物性分解力↓ 3.無法分解且永存之污物，將經由食物鏈（food web）過程使濃度提高。 ‧湖泊、水庫之污物稀釋力＜河川之污物稀釋力 ‧沉澱有機物、無機物沉積水體底部，但有毒物質將隨洪水來犯時又漂浮水面。

Pollution of Streams Oxygen sag curve Factors influencing recovery Fig. 22-5 p. 496

（一）、河川與廢污之分解 河水的自清過程所耗時間與其流量、流速有關： 1.流量、流速↑DO↑, BOD↓自清過程所耗時間較短 2.夏季，枯水期，流量、流速↓空氣中O2轉化量↓DO↓大量污物稀釋力↓

（二）、世界水質之概觀 美國：水質尚佳，73%河、湖可遊憩、游泳。立法嚴格管制水污染，污水須先處理方可入河。☆ 英國：1950年，泰晤士河（Thames River）污染嚴重，經30年整治，花2.5億英磅方始復原。○ 德國：1970年，萊茵河（Rhine River）污染嚴重，經16年整治，方始復原，但1986年瑞士Sandoz化工廠大火，排放大量有毒化學物質入河，釀成大禍，經大力整治方始復原。○ 前蘇聯：水質不佳，工廠廢污入河，沒有適當水污染管制〤 印度：在3,199個都市中，只有217個有下水道處理設施（7%），其中只有8條有現代化處理設備。〤 中國大陸：在78條受監控的河流當中，就有54條遭到污染。其中有20%過度污染無法灌溉之用。〤 拉丁美洲與非洲：許多河流穿越都市、工業區，嚴重污染。〤（附註：整體水質 優☆，可○，劣〤）

A. MDC的有毒化學製品、非點源污染仍嚴重 1. The U.S. has managed to avoid increases in pollution from point sources in most streams.美國一直設法避免增加大多數的點源污染。 2. There have been several examples of amazing cleanup of rivers, such as the Cuyahoga River in Ohio and the Thames River in Great Britain.已有幾個清理河流例子,如在俄亥俄州凱霍加河和英國的泰晤士河。 3. There are still examples of large fish kills and contamination of drinking water(飲水污染) from releases of chemicals from industry and mining, and also from non-point runoff of fertilizers and pesticides(肥料、殺蟲劑). 仍然有大量魚類死亡和飲用水污染的例子，這是源自於釋放出的化學品工業和採礦，以及從非定點逕流化肥和農藥（肥料，殺蟲劑）。

B. LDC河川污染依然嚴重 以印度恆河為例，宗教信仰、傳統文化、貧窮、經濟發展程度較低、人口眾多，導致恆河嚴重污染： 1. About 350 million people live in the Ganges River basin with little treatment of sewage produced by them.約有 3.5億人生活在恒河流域，但所產生的污水沒有作多少處理。 2. Hindu(印度人) beliefs add pollution to the air when bodies are cremated(火化遺體) and to the water when partially cremated or non-cremated bodies are thrown into the river in order to find their way to heaven(找到去天堂的路). 印度人的信仰卻增加了空氣的污染，每當火化遺體，有些部分火化或不火化屍體被扔進河裡，以便找到通往天堂的路。

印度恆河污染因素(續) 3. The government is working to clean up the river by building waste treatment plants(污水處理廠) in the 29 large cities along the Ganges(恆河) and by building electric crematoriums(電動火化場) on its banks. It has also introduced(引進) snapping turtles(海龜) as body scavengers(食腐動物).政府正在努力清理河道，這是通過在沿恒河（恒河） 29大城市建立廢棄物處理廠（污水處理廠）和在其河岸興建電動火化場。它還引進生猛海龜，以為屍體的清道夫（食腐動物）。 4. Most of these plans are not yet in place, and religious and cultural conditions are difficult to change.但大多數這些計劃還沒有到位，況且宗教和文化條件難以改變。

(三)、湖泊、水庫之污染 A. Lakes have little flow and so are less effective at diluting pollutants that enter them(少有流動→釋污力↓). 湖的流量小，稀釋進入湖內污染物效率低。 1. Lakes and reservoirs are often stratified into layers(分層現象) with little vertical mixing, and they also have very little flow occurring. It may take from 1–100 years to flush(湧流) and change water in lakes and reservoirs.湖泊和水庫常有分層現象且少有混合垂直，而且少有流量發生。它可能需要從 1-100年才有湧流，及改變湖泊和水庫的水。 2. Lakes and reservoirs are much more vulnerable(脆弱的) to runoff contamination of all kinds of materials.湖泊和水庫的逕流易遭各種物質污染。 3. Chemical concentrations(濃度↑) build up as they pass through the food webs in lakes.化學濃度（濃度↑）將通過湖泊的食物網而加大。

(三)、湖泊、水庫之污染 B. 人類活動導致湖內含養過量→DO↓→水生物死亡 1. Natural nutrient enrichment of lakes from runoff is called eutrophication. The amount of natural eutrophication depends on the composition of the surrounding drainage basin(流域面積). 湖泊從逕流帶入營養豐富的天然物被稱為優養化。天然水體優養化的數額取決於周圍排放水域的組成。 2. Natural eutrophication can enrich the abundance of desirable organisms, but cultural eutrophication occurs near urban or agricultural areas and can lead to serious pollution problems. 天然優養化可以豐富有機體，但文化優養化卻發生在城市或農業地區附近，並可能導致嚴重的污染問題。

優養化現象(續) 3. During hot weather or drought, “blooms” of organisms can reduce lake productivity. 在炎熱的天氣和乾旱之時，一叢叢的生物體將減少湖泊的生產力。 4. Reduced sunlight and the subsequent decomposition(隨後分解) of the “blooms” increase populations of bacteria and decreases dissolved oxygen (DO) ↓available. 陽光減少照射，隨後這些植物叢的分解，將會增加細菌量，減少可用的溶解氧（DO）↓。 5.Fish kills can occur, and the problem can become so bad that anaerobic bacteria(厭氧菌) take over. 魚類死亡可能發生，且一旦厭氧菌到處滋生，問題將會變得更糟糕。

Eutrophication 『文明優養化』或『耗竭』之現象： 含磷酸鹽或硝酸鹽之廢污入流分解提供營養藻類大量繁殖阻礙陽光照射水藻死亡，DO↓形成廢污、細菌分解耗盡污水中游離氧魚貝類等死亡厭氧細菌滋生含毒氣體↑死湖

Lake ecosystem nutrient overload and breakdown of chemical cycling Discharge of untreated municipal sewage (nitrates and phosphates) Nitrogen compounds produced by cars and factories Natural runoff (nitrates and phosphates Discharge of detergents ( phosphates) Inorganic fertilizer runoff (nitrates and phosphates) Manure runoff from feedlots (nitrates, phosphates, ammonia) Lake ecosystem nutrient overload and breakdown of chemical cycling Discharge of treated municipal sewage (primary and secondary treatment: nitrates and phosphates) Runoff from streets, lawns, and construction lots (nitrates and phosphates) Runoff and erosion (from cultivation, mining, construction, and poor land use) Dissolving of nitrogen oxides (from internal combustion engines and furnaces)

圖2-4-1 湖泊優養化的主要來源

表2-2-11 90 年至97 年本島20 座主要水庫營養階層分級

台灣水庫優養化原因和對策 水庫優養化原因， 主要為水庫內部底泥中營養鹽的污染及由外部進入水庫的污染， 例如家庭污水、遊憩廢水等點污染源， 及因水庫集水區地形陡峻， 每經豪大雨沖刷， 河川流經區域之茶園、果園的農藥、肥料及開發行為中土壤、林地落葉等之主要污染物質-氮磷-即被帶入水庫， 加上水庫容積小、日照強烈， 優養化情形即顯現。 96年已先針對翡翠水庫水質之保護， 製作新店溪上游「農業非點源污染控制技術執行手冊」， 及辦理3場次最佳污染管理控制措施之宣導會， 包括大雨來不施肥、適量施肥、農藥罐不亂丟、種植草溝、草帶、山邊溝等9種方法。同時完成3處共2.67公頃緩衝帶及溼地， 削減鄰近茶園、社區排水的污染。後續環保署將持續於翡翠、石門、曾文及金門縣湖庫， 加強執行水庫集水區保育相關工作。

『優養化』或『枯竭』現象投入、產出防治法（P.490-491） 1.優養化投入防治方法： (1)採進階式污水處理（P.504） (2)禁止或限制家用清潔劑磷酸鹽用量。 (3)實施水土保持與土地使用管制以降低逕流含營養成分。 2.優養化產出清除方法： (1)剷除沉澱物以去除帶養份組織。 (2)以除草劑或去藻劑去除過量雜草，控制不需要的植物成長。 (3)以幫浦（pump）打入空氣到湖或水庫中，以避免氧量耗竭。

Case Study: The Great Lakes Fig. 22-8 p. 500

C. 案例：北美五大湖(the Great Lakes)的污染和清除 1.The Great Lakes contain about 95% of the fresh surface water in the United States, and one-fifth of the world’s fresh surface water. 大湖水體約占美國地表淡水的95％，以及和世界地表淡水的五分之一。 2. At least 38 million people obtain drinking water form the lakes.這些湖泊供應3800萬人飲水。 3. The lakes are vulnerable to pollution(易受污) because they have less than 1% outflow to the St. Lawrence River, and there is land runoff and atmospheric deposition(大氣沈澱物) of acids, pesticides, etc. being blown into them.這些湖泊容易受到污染，因為他們流到聖勞倫斯河的水量已經低於 1％，且土地的逕流和含酸的大氣沉澱物、農藥，也被吹到湖中。 4. Lake Erie is the shallowest(淺) of the lakes and was the most polluted, due to the highest concentration of people and industry.伊利湖是最淺的湖泊，曾經污染最嚴重，因其為人口和工業高度聚集地。

北美五大湖的污染和清除(續) 5.Since 1972, the U.S. and Canada have worked together to reduce pollution.自1972年以來，美國和加拿大共同努力減少污染。 6.There are still problems to be solved such as a large area of depleted oxygen(耗氧) that occurs in the center of the lake each August for unknown reasons. 但還有問題需要解決，如每年八月發生在湖中心的耗氧面積廣大，其原因不明。 7. A 2000 survey by the EPA stated that more than three-fourths of the shoreline(湖岸線) of the Great Lakes is not clean enough for swimming or use as drinking water.大湖區水質欠佳。按美國環保局 2000年的調查指出，大湖區超過四分之三的湖岸線並不乾淨，不能游泳或用作飲用水。 8. Non-point land runoff is a greater problem than industrial pollution now for the Great Lakes.在大湖區，現在非點源的土地逕流，比工業污染的問題更大。

北美五大湖的污染和清除(續) 9.Bio magnification of the depositions from atmospheric contaminants means that one fish in four is unsafe for human consumption.(大氣污染沈澱物之生物性擴大↑,表示1/4的魚不能供人安全的食用。 10. EPA funding for cleanup has also dropped by 80% since 1992. 自1992年, 環保局清理資金已經下降了80％。 11. Environmentalists call for banning the use of bleach(禁用漂白劑), building new incinerators(焚化爐), and stopping the discharge(放流水) into the lakes of 70 toxic chemicals.環保人士呼籲禁止使用漂白劑，興建新的垃圾焚化爐，並禁止將70種有毒化學物質排放到湖中。

七、地面水污染之防治 地面水污染較易查覺，監控亦較地下水相對容易。其防治之方法：定點與不定點污源防治法 A. 減少地面水非點源污染的方法； 1. Agricultural non-point pollution can be reduced by reducing soil erosion減少土壤侵蝕, reforestation造林 of watersheds, keeping cover crops(覆蓋作物) on farmland, reducing fertilizer use or using slow-release fertilizer, and planting buffer zones(緩衝帶) between farmland and surface water nearby.農業非點源污染，可藉由減少土壤侵蝕、在流域造林、農地上保持覆蓋作物、減少化肥使用或使用緩釋肥，農田和附近地表水之間栽植緩衝地帶。 2. Rely more on biological control methods (生物控制法)rather than pesticides.更為依賴生物控制方法，而不是農藥。

圖2-1-2 基本的和寬廣的農業緩衝區 資料來源：Sullivan et al.,2004 :303

A.不定點污源之防治-美國 3. In 2002, a federal court forced the EPA to uphold(支持) the intent of the Clean Water Act and require 15,500 of the largest feedlots(飼養場) to apply for EPA permits(許可). 2002年，聯邦法院強制環保局支持淨水法案的意圖，並要求15,500最大飼養場需向環保局申請許可。 (需先申請許可，方可飼養) This means that these “factories” will have to obey the same pollution controls that are used by other industries since 1972.這意味著，這些“工廠”將不得不遵守自1972年以來用來管控其他工業的措施。 同樣的污染控制所使用的4. Research on how to use animal wastes more effectively is underway. 3。 （需先申請許可，方可飼養） 4。研究如何更有效地利用牲畜糞便正在進行。

A.不定點污源之防治-美國 1. The Clean Water Act sets standards for allowed levels of key water pollutants and requires polluters to obtain permits that specify the amounts of pollutants they can discharge into aquatic systems.(清潔水法規定排放流標準,並要求污染者需先取得排放許可證，指定可排放入水系統之污染物數量) 2. The EPA is experimenting with a discharge trading policy that would allow a permit holder to purchase unused credits from another permit holder.(美國環保局正在試驗一種排放流貿易政策 --污染許可證可予交易，未用餘額可以賣給他人) 3. There are good and bad points to credit trading, such as a possible buildup of pollutants in areas where credits are bought.(排污權買賣有好有壞-徒使購買排污權的地區污源增加)

B. 開中國家不定點污源欠缺防治 4. Most cities in developing countries discharge 80–90% of untreated sewage into rivers, lakes, and streams used for drinking water, bathing, and washing clothes.(但，開發中國家放流大多未經處理) 4。大多數發展中國家的城市，將80-90％未經處理的污水排入河流、湖泊和溪流中，而這些水是用於飲用，洗澡和洗衣服。（但，開發中國家放流大多未經處理）

Global Outlook: Stream Pollution in Developing Countries 全球展望：發展中國家的河流污染 Water in many of central China‘s rivers are greenish black from uncontrolled pollution by thousands of factories. 在中國中部許多河流的水呈墨綠色，這是從數以千計的不受控制的污染工廠排出。 工廠排放廢污未處理 Figure 21-5

C. 定點污源之防治 1. About one-fourth of homes in the U.S. are served by septic tanks(化糞池).在美國，約有四分之一的住宅供應化糞池。 2. Most urban areas are served by sewage treatment plants(污水處理廠).大多數城市都提供有污水處理廠。 3. Some 1,200 cities have combined storm runoff and sewer lines because it is cheaper(雨水、污水下水道未分立). These systems can overflow溢滿 and discharge untreated sewage directly into surface water with too many users or when there is a heavy storm.約 1200個城市已有聯合雨水逕流和下水道，因為這樣較便宜。但用戶太多或有一場暴風雨時，這些系統會溢滿，並排放未經處理的污水直接排入地表水。

C. 定點污源之防治(續) 4. Aging sewer systems(老化污水處理系統) and combined sewer systems in the U.S. are estimated to cost $10 billion a year for 10 years to install dual systems, add capacity, and repair the aging sewer network.美國老化的下水道系統，和下水道系統相結合，估計需在10年間耗資 100億美元來安裝雙組（分立）系統，以增加容量，並修復老化的污水管網。 5.Raw sewage generally undergoes one or two levels of treatment.污水一般須經一、二級處理 6. Primary sewage treatment is a physical process that removes grit(砂礫), floating objects(漂浮物), and suspended solids(懸浮微粒). A settling tank(沈澱池) allows suspended solids to settle out as sludge(污泥). 一級污水處理是一種物理過程，可消除砂礫、漂浮物、懸浮固體（懸浮微粒）。一個沉澱池允許懸浮固體可以處理為污泥。

Figure 19-17 Page 504 Primary Secondary Grit chamber Chlorine disinfection tank Bar screen Settling tank Aeration tank Settling tank To river, lake, or ocean Raw sewage from sewers (kills bacteria) Sludge Activated sludge Air pump Sludge digester Sludge drying bed Disposed of in landfill or ocean or applied to cropland, pasture, or rangeland Figure 19-17 Page 504

C. 定點污源之防治(續) 7.Primary treatment removes about 60% of suspended solids懸浮微粒 and 30–40% of organic wastes, but no phosphates, nitrates, salts, radioisotopes(放射性同位素), or pesticides.一級污水處理去除約 60％的懸浮微粒和30-40％的有機廢物，但無法去除磷酸鹽，硝酸鹽，鹽類，放射性同位素，或殺蟲劑。 8. Secondary sewage treatment is a biological process where aerobic bacteria需氧菌 remove up to 90% of dissolved and biodegradable生物分解, oxygen-demanding organic wastes.二級污水處理是一種生物過程，其中好氧菌去除高達 90％的溶解和生物可降解、需氧的有機廢物。 9. A combination of primary and secondary treatment removes 95–97% of the suspended solids and oxygen-demanding organic wastes, 70% of most toxic metal compounds金屬化合物, 70% of phosphorus磷, 50% of nitrogen氮, and 5% of dissolved salts. 一個結合一級和二級的污水處理，可消除95-97％的懸浮固體和需氧的有機廢物，70％的多數有毒的金屬化合物，70％的磷，50％的氮，及5％的溶解鹽。

C. 定點污源之防治(續) 10. Most U.S. cities have combined primary and secondary sewage treatment plants. A number of cities have been in violation at times, and 34 East Coast cities screen out(擋住) large floating objects and discharge sewage into coastal waters. 大多數美國城市已有一級和二級聯合污水處理廠。一些城市有時違反常情，有34個東海岸城市擋住了大型漂浮物和排放污水到沿岸水域。 11. Tertiary sewage treatments(三級污水處理) are a third level of cleanup. Here, a combination of chemical and physical processes remove specific pollutants left by the other methods. This is expensive and used to treat only 5% of the wastewater in the U.S. 11。三級污水處理是第三個層次的清理。在這裡，化學和物理的組合過程，去除特定污染物而留下其他的方法。這是昂貴的，在美國只有5％的廢水用此方法處理。

C. 定點污源之防治(續) 12. Water is bleached(漂白) to remove colors and then disinfected(消毒殺菌) to kill disease-causing bacteria and some viruses(濾過性病毒). Chlorination(加氨消毒) is the usual method of disinfection(消毒法).將水加以漂白、除色，然後進行消毒，以殺死致病細菌和一些病毒。而加氨消毒是通常的消毒方法。 13. Ozonation(臭氧) and use of ultraviolet light(紫外線) are increasing as methods of disinfection消毒. 13。臭氧和使用紫外線，是越來越多被用來消毒的方法。

Technological Approach: Advanced (Tertiary) Sewage Treatment (三級污水處理) Uses physical and chemical processes 使用物理和化學過程 Removes nitrate and phosphate 去除硝酸鹽和磷酸鹽 Expensive 昂貴 Not widely used 未被廣泛採用

D. 污水處理之污泥需妥予處理 1. Sludge is a thick, gooey mixture(膠黏混合物) of bacteria, solids, chemicals, and metals金屬 when industrial and household wastes are combined.當工業和家庭廢物相結合時，會產生污泥。污泥是一種粘稠的物體，為細菌、固體、化學品、金屬混合成糊糊的混合物。 2. Some sludge undergoes anaerobic(厭氧的) digestion(消化) to decompose(分解) the organic materials and produce compost(混合物).一些污泥經過厭氧的消化作用，以分解有機材料和製造堆肥。 3. About 36% of these biosolids are used to fertilize farmland, forests, golf courses, cemeteries, etc. The rest is added to landfills(垃圾掩埋場) or incinerated(焚化). 約 有36％的生物固體是用來施肥於農田，森林，高爾夫球場，墓地等，其餘將被添加到垃圾填埋場或焚化。

D. 污水處理之污泥需妥予處理 4. Composting sludge to recycle(再利用) the plant nutrients makes good ecological sense, but removing infectious bacteria傳染菌, toxic chemicals, and metals is expensive and seldom done in the U.S.污泥堆肥回收（再利用）植物的營養素，具有良好的生態意義，但是，消除傳染病菌、有毒化學品以及金屬的價格昂貴，故在美國很少這樣做。 5. It is thought that a number of health problems may be due to using sludge to fertilize crops in the U.S.(少用污泥施肥—健康因素) 。 一般認為，在美國有不少健康問題，可能是由於使用污泥對作物施肥所致。

少用污泥施肥—健康因素 Dust Particles Odors Odors may cause illness or indicate presence of harmful gases Dust Particles Particles of dried sludge carry viruses and harmful bacteria that can be inhaled, infect cuts or enter homes. Exposure Children may walk or play in fertilized fields. BUFFER ZONE Livestock Poisoning Cows may die after grazing on sludge-treated fields. Sludge Groundwater Contamination Harmful chemicals and pathogens may leach into groundwater and shallow wells. Surface Runoff Harmful chemicals and pathogens may pollute nearby streams, lakes, ponds, and wetlands. 少用污泥施肥—健康因素

少用污泥施肥—健康因素 氣味 氣味可能會導致疾病或表明存在有害氣體 粉塵顆粒 乾污泥顆粒攜帶病毒和有害細菌，可能被吸入，感染傷口或帶進家庭。 曝曬 兒童可能在施肥場地步行或遊玩 緩衝區 家畜中毒 在污泥處理後場地放牧，乳牛可能死亡。 污泥 地下水污染 有害化學物質和病原體可能滲入地下水和淺井。 地表逕流 有害化學物質和病原體可能污染附近的溪流，湖泊，池塘和濕地 . 少用污泥施肥—健康因素

E. 防止有毒化學物質進入污水處理廠 1. Require industries and businesses to remove toxic and hazardous wastes from water sent to sewage treatment plants; encourage reduction or elimination除去 of toxic chemical use and waste. 1。需要工業和企業消除含有毒和有害廢物的水，這需送到污水處理廠;處理，並鼓勵減少或消除有毒化學品的使用和廢棄物。 2. Have households switch to waterless composting toilet systems maintained by professionals. These systems would be cheaper to install and maintain since they do not need underground pipes（無須設置地下管線）.使用戶轉換到無水堆肥廁所系統，由專業人士加以維護。這些系統的安裝和維護成本更低，因為他們並不需要地下管道（無須設置地下管線）。

F. 運用自然和人工濕地處理污水 1.These systems are a low-tech, low-cost alternative to expensive waste treatment plants. 這些系統是低技術、低成本的，以替代昂貴的廢棄物處理廠。 2. Sewage goes to sedimentation tanks(沈澱池) where solids settle as sludge that is removed. The liquid(液體) is pumped to oxidation ponds(氧化池); bacteria break down remaining wastes. After a month, water is released to an artificial marsh(人工沼澤) where plants and bacteria filter(濾除) and cleanse it. 2。污水流入沉澱池，可將固體加以處理成污泥。液體被泵入氧化池中;細菌分解將剩下一些廢物。一個月後，將水釋放到人工濕地，裡面有植物和細菌可過濾，使它潔淨。

F. 運用自然和人工濕地處理污水 3. Mark Nelson developed a small, low-tech, inexpensive artificial wetland system for use in developing countries at hotels, restaurants, and homes. It removes 99.9% of fecal coliform bacteria(大腸菌) and over 80% of the nitrates and phosphates from sewage. The water thus cleaned could be used for garden irrigation or flushing toilets and save water. 馬克尼爾森開發了一種小型、低技術、廉價的人工濕地系統，以供發展中國家在酒店、餐館和家庭使用。它消除99.9％的大腸菌群，和超過 80％的硝酸鹽和磷酸鹽的污水。因此，清潔的水可用於園林灌溉或沖洗廁所，及節約用水。  

F. 運用自然和人工濕地處理污水 4. Genetic engineering(遺傳工程) is developing a bioreactor where modified bacteria will consume pesticides. 4。基因工程（遺傳工程）正在開發一種生物反應器，以利用改造的細菌以消耗農藥。 5. Without large investments in building adequate sanitation facilities, more people will have inadequate sanitation.(亟需供應公衛設施) 5。如果沒有大量的投資在建設適當的衛生設施，更多的人將沒有足夠的衛生設施。

Figure 19-19 Page 506 (1) Raw sewage drains by gravity into the first pool and flows through a long perforated PVC pipe into a bed of limestone gravel. (3) Wastewater flows through another perforated pipe into a second pool, where the same process is repeated. Sewage Treated water Wetland type plants Wetland type plants 45 centimeter layer of limestone gravel coated with decomposing bacteria First concrete pool Second concrete pool (2) Microbes in the limestone gravel break down the sewage into chemicals that can be absorbed by the plant roots, and the gravel absorbs phosphorus. (4) Treated water flowing from the second pool is nearly free of bacteria and plant nutrients. Treated water can be recycled for irrigation and flushing toilets. Figure 19-19 Page 506

（1）Raw sewage drains by gravity into the first pool and flows through a long perforated PVC pipe into a bed of limestone gravel. 由未經處理的污水藉由重力進入第一池，並流經長條穿孔PVC管到石灰岩礫石床。 (2) Microbes in the limestone gravel break down the sewage into chemicals that can be absorbed by the plant roots, and the gravel absorbs phosphorus. （2）在石灰岩礫石微生物將污水分解成化學物質，可以通過植物根系吸收，而礫石可以吸收磷。 (3) Wastewater flows through another perforated pipe into a second pool, where the same process is repeated. 廢水流經另一穿孔管進入第二個池，而同樣的過程重複進行。 (4) Treated water flowing from the second pool is nearly free of bacteria and plant nutrients. Treated water can be recycled for irrigation and flushing toilets. 從第二池流入處理後的水，是從近乎沒有細菌和植物營養素。處理後的水可循環用於灌溉和沖廁所。 45 centimeter layer of limestone gravel coated with decomposing bacteria 45厘米石灰岩礫石層塗有分解細菌

八、地下水之污染與防治 （一）地下水之自清作用力較地面水低（∵地下水之流速慢，污染物質不易稀釋、擴散，分解性細菌含量少） ˙地下水污染之主要來源：（P.494） 1.地下儲存槽滲漏含毒之有機化學物質 2.地下深井堆放含毒物質 ˙地下水污染防治之困難： 1.管制不嚴，不易察覺 2.設置偵測井昂貴又不一定有效。

除冰鹽路 廢棄潟湖 受污染空氣 危險的廢棄物投入井 殺蟲劑和肥料 露天煤礦逕流 埋於地下之石油和鎔劑槽 化糞池 取水井 加油站 偶發溢出 Groundwater flow Confined aquifer Discharge Leakage from faulty casing 危險的廢棄物投入井 殺蟲劑和肥料 加油站 埋於地下之石油和鎔劑槽 Sewer 化糞池 除冰鹽路 不受壓淡水含水層 受壓淡水含水層Confined freshwater aquifer 垃圾填埋地 受污染空氣

A. 地下水易受污染之特性 1. Spilling gasoline, oil, paint thinners(油漆稀釋劑), and other organics onto the ground can contaminate groundwater.溢出汽油，機油，油漆稀釋劑及其他有機物在地面上，從而污染地下水。 2. Experts rate groundwater pollution as a low-risk ecological problem; it is rated as a high-risk health problem.專家將地下水污染視為一個低風險的生態問題，但它被評為高風險的健康問題。 3. Contaminated water in the aquifer(含水層) will slowly flow along and create a plume of contaminated water. 被污染水一旦進入含水層裡，將慢慢流動，並形成一層層污染的水。

A. 地下水易受污染之特性(續) 4. Contaminants in groundwater are not diluted(稀釋) or dispersed(驅散) because this water moves usually less than 0.3 meter, or 1 foot per day.地下水污染物並不會稀釋或驅散，因為這些水流移動通常少於 0.3米，或每天少於1公尺。 5. Factors such as lower oxygen content, colder temperature of the water, and smaller populations of decomposing bacteria mean that cleansing is extremely slow. 出現如低的含氧量，水溫較低，和分解菌種群小等因素，意味著淨化將是非常緩慢。 6. It can take hundreds of years to cleanse degradable wastes; nondegradable wastes are there permanently. 它可能得花上數百年來淨化可分解廢物; 而不可分解的廢物將長期留存。

B. 地下水(含水層)監測欠缺 1. EPA and U.S. Geological Survey figures state that one or more organic chemicals contaminate about 45% of municipal groundwater supplies in the U.S. 據EPA和美國地質調查局數據說明，有機化工污染，約占美國的城市地下水供應的 45％。 2. Some 26,000 industrial waste ponds and lagoons in the U.S. do not have a liner to prevent toxic waste seepage(滲流). 在美國，有 26000座工業廢水池和潟湖(鹹水湖)沒有襯墊，難以防止有毒廢物滲漏。 3. A great many of the underground storage tanks(地下儲存槽) containing organic solvents(有機溶劑) have been found to have leaks(裂縫).大量的地下儲油槽含有有機溶劑，已發現有洩漏情形。 4. Determining the extent of a leak is costly, and the cost of cleanup is more costly yet. 然要確定洩漏的程度是昂貴的，且其清理成本甚至要更昂貴。

B. 地下水(含水層)監測欠缺(續) 5. In China and India, millions of people drink water contaminated with high levels of fluoride(氟化物) that cause back and neck damage and dentalproblems. 在中國和印度，成千上萬的人飲用受污染的水與高濃度的氟化物，導致背部和頸部的損傷和牙齒的問題。 6. Nitrates(硝酸鹽) can also contaminate groundwater, especially in agricultural areas. Nitrates converting to nitrites(亞硝酸鹽) in the body can cause various forms of cancer and in babies under 6 months old causes “blue baby syndrome” because the blood can’t carry sufficient oxygen to the cells。 硝酸鹽也會污染地下水，特別是在農業地區。硝酸鹽轉換為亞硝酸鹽，則在體內可引起各種形式的癌症，6個月以下嬰兒將導致「藍嬰綜合症」，因為血液不能攜帶足夠的氧氣給細胞之故。（血液帶氧量不足）

B. 地下水(含水層)監測欠缺(續) 7. Arsenic(砷) is released into drinking water when a well is drilled(鑽孔) into arsenic-rich soils and rock. WHO estimates that more than 112 million people drink water containing 5–100 times the recommended level of 10 parts/billion.當鑽井時，如鑽孔到含砷的土壤和岩石，將使砷被釋放到飲用水井。世衛組織估計，有超過 1.12億人飲用的水中含有10單位/十億建議含砷量的5-100倍。 8.Bangladesh has a serious. problem with arsenic, but the UN and several NGOs have started a program to assess wells and mark those that are too contaminated with red paint.孟加拉國有一個嚴重的砷問題，但聯合國和一些非政府組織已開始進行一項計劃，評估一些水井，並對那些過於污染者，噴上紅色油漆。 9. The 1-ppb(十億分之一) level is considered to still be too high a level for safe drinking water. 就安全飲用水言，十億分之一的水平，仍然被認為是過高的。

Groundwater Pollution Solutions Groundwater Pollution Prevention Cleanup Find substitutes for toxic chemicals找出有毒化學品的替代品 Pump to surface, clean, and return to aquifer (very expensive) 抽取到地表，清潔，並回注到含水層（非常昂貴） Keep toxic chemicals out of the environment讓有毒化學品遠離環境 Install monitoring wells near landfills and underground tanks在垃圾填埋場和地下油罐附近安裝監測井 Inject microorganisms to clean up contamination (less expensive but still costly)注入微生物清除污染（較便宜，但仍然昂貴） Require leak detectors on underground tanks對地下油罐裝置洩漏探測器 Pump nanoparticles of inorganic compounds to remove pollutants (may be the cheapest, easiest, and most effective method but is still being developed)抽取無機化合物，去除污染物（可能是最便宜，最簡單，最有效的方法，但仍處於開發階段） Ban hazardous waste disposal in landfills and injection wells禁止在垃圾填埋場和注水井處置危險廢物 Store harmful liquids in aboveground tanks with leak detection and collection systems在地面上有害液體儲存槽，對其洩漏建立檢測和收集系統

（二）地下水源保護之策略(預防措施) ‧尋找有毒化學製品的代用品 ‧促使有毒化學製品遠離環境 ‧於垃圾掩埋場和地下油箱附近裝置監控井 ‧需要安裝地下油箱的探漏器 ‧禁止在垃圾掩埋場和投注井加以處置危險廢棄物 ‧將有害液體儲存在地面油箱內，並裝置滲漏偵察和收集系統

(二）地下水源保護之策略(清理措施) ‧將水抽到地表，加以清潔，並且回注含水層(非常昂貴) ‧注入微生物以清理污染(較不昂貴但是仍然代價高昂) ‧抽取無機化合物微粒並且除去污染物(可能是最便宜、最容易，和最有效的方法但是尚待發展)

九、飲用水水質 (Drinking Water Quality) Purification of urban drinking water Protection from terrorism Purification of rural drinking water Safe Drinking Water Act Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) Bottled water

九、飲用水水源水質 飲用水的水源，主要還是地面水與地下水，且其水質要求比灌溉用水來得嚴格。飲用水淨化措施如下: 1. Exposure of contaminated water to intense sunlight in a clear plastic bottle(透明塑膠管) is one method. It takes as little as 3 hours to kill bacteria in the sun and heat.將受污染的水裝在透明塑膠管，在強烈的陽光下曝曬，是一種好方法。在陽光和熱之下，它只要短短3個小時就能殺死細菌。 2. Cholera incidences(霍亂影響範圍) have been cut in half in Bangladesh by filtering water(濾水) through strips of cloth(棉織物).在孟加拉國，霍亂發病率已減少了一半，這是通過棉織物加以過濾水。 3. A third method is to add a small amount of chlorine to a plastic or clay storage vessel(管) with a small mouth, cap, and a spigot.This has cut the rate of diarrheal diseasein half in countries where it is used.第三種方法是添加少量的氯的塑料或粘土儲存管，開個小口，加蓋和水龍頭。使用它國家裡，已削減一半的腹瀉疾病比率。

A. 飲用水質課題 約有54國訂有水質標準，但有如下課題： 1. Levels have been established called maximum contaminant levels for any pollutants that may adversely affect human health. 所謂污染物的各級最高標準已經建立，這是按污染物是否會影響人體健康而定。 2. Privately owned wells don’t have to meet these standards.私有水井不需達到這些標準 (私井不受規範) 3. Health scientists want the standards to be strengthened.保健有關的科學家希望能夠強化該標準 4. Certain industries want to weaken the Safe Drinking Water Act. 但某些產業想要削弱「安全飲用水法案」的效能。

B. 瓶裝水課題 1. Bottled water is vastly more expensive than tap water(自來水) and about one-fourth of it is tap water, one-third of it is contaminated with bacteria, and various harmful organic chemicals contaminate about one-fifth of it. 瓶裝水比自來水貴得多，其中約四分之一是自來水，三分之一卻是受細菌污染，而各種有害的有機化學污染物約占五分之一。 2. Use of bottled water also can cause environmental problems from all of the throw-away plastic bottles. 使用瓶裝水也可能導致環境問題，因喝完後往往扔掉塑料瓶。 3. Manufacture of the bottles releases toxic gases and liquids.製造瓶子時，還會釋放有毒氣體和液體。 4. Before buying costly home purification systems, have water tested by an independent company.在購買昂貴的家居淨化系統，應有獨立的水公司進行測試。 5. Be sure to check out claims by a company that they are EPA approved because the EPA registers devices, but neither tests nor approves them.一定要檢查公司所宣稱的各項品質保證，因為他們是美國環保局批准登記的設備。

C. 全民參與防治飲用水污染 We need to shift priorities from controlling to preventing and reducing water pollution, and this will require bottom-up political action by individuals and groups.我們必須從控制重點轉移到預防和減少水的污染，而這將需要個人和團體自下而上的政治行動。 1. Bottom-up political pressure on elected officials has reduced point-source water pollution.對民選官員自下而上的政治壓力，已減少點源污染。 2. A shift needs to be made to how we can prevent water pollution in the first place. 一個需要作出改變，即是我們要將如何才能防止水質污染擺在首位。 3. Prevention of water pollution will take action from individuals and groups to pressure elected officials. 個人和團體會採取行動，對民選官員施加壓力，以防止水質污染。

Water Pollution Solutions Prevent groundwater contamination 防止地下水污染 Greatly reduce nonpoint runoff 大大減少非點源的逕流 Reuse treated wastewater for irrigation 將再利用處理過的廢水用於灌溉 Find substitutes for toxic pollutants找尋有毒污染物的替代品 Work with nature to treat sewage 順應自然以處理污水 Practice four R‘s of resource use (refuse, reduce, recycle, reuse) 實踐四R的資源利用方式(拒絕，減少，回收，再利用) Reduce resource waste 減少資源浪費 Reduce air pollution 減少空氣污染 Reduce poverty 減少貧困 Reduce birth rates 降低人口出生率

Water Pollution What Can You Do? Fertilize your garden and yard plants with manure or compost instead of commercial inorganic fertilizer. Minimize your use of pesticides. Never apply fertilizer or pesticides near a body of water. Grow or buy organic foods. Compost your food wastes. Do not use water fresheners in toilets. Do not flush unwanted medicines down the toilet. Do not pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oil, antifreeze, or other products containing harmful chemicals down the drain or onto the ground.

你如何防止水污染？ 在你的花園和院子施肥，是用有機肥料或堆肥廠，而不是商業無機肥料。 盡量減少農藥的使用。 在水體附近，不要施用化肥、農藥。 種植或購買有機食品。 將食品廢棄物製成堆肥。 不要將提神飲料倒入廁所。 不要不必要的藥品衝入馬桶。 不要將殺蟲劑，油漆，溶劑，油，防凍液，或其他產品含有有害化學物質付諸東流，或排放在地面上。

Thank you! 主要參考書目： Miller G. Tyler JR. Living in the Environment-Principles Connections and Solutions 13th ed. California: Brooks/Cole 2004