Chapter 5 Performing the contract 1.contract terms 1.1 Terms and representation Statements may be classified as terms or as representation. The significance of distinguishing terms and representation is different remedy of misled party. terms----主张breach of contract Representation----主张misrepresentation
2.Express terms and implied terms In examining a contract, the courts will look first at the terms expressly agreed by the parties.
2.3Implied terms 默示条款;暗示条款 Terms may be implied by the courts, by statute or by custom.例如在雇佣合约中,虽然没有订明雇员必须尽忠职守,勤力工作,但其实这些条件,经已默示在合约当中,被视为有效的条款。 2.3.1 Terms implied by custom The parties may enter into a contract subject to customs of their trade. Any express term overrides效力优先于 a term which might be implied by custom.
2.3.2 terms implied by statute 例如法定条款,即使没有写入合同,当事人也应遵守. 2.3.3 terms implied by the courts
3.conditions and warranties 条件与担保 Contract terms may be further classified as conditions or warranties. The remedies for breach of conditions and warranties are different.
条件条款 (condition) 所谓条件条款,是指合同中十分重要、必不可少(vital、essential)的条款;对这类条款的违反,将导致合同目的无法实现、剥夺非违约方实质性的利益,因此,一方违反条件条款时,不管违反的情形多么轻微,非违约方都可告知违约方其选择不再履行合同的义务(即解除合同),并主张损害赔偿;如非违约方愿意,其也可选择维持合同,但其仍可主张损害赔偿。
保证条款 (warranty) 所谓保证条款,是指合同中相对次要、从属性(subsidiary or collateral) 的条款;对这类条款的违反,并不会导致合同目的无法实现,因而,非违约方仅享有要求损害赔偿的权利,而无权解除合同。
3.2 innominate terms 所谓中间条款,是指重要性间于条件条款和保证条款之中的条款。违反中间条款的性质(nature)和效果(effect)不同,其后果也不同。 又称无名条款;某些条款难以区分为条件或担保,则以违反该条款之后果(对于合同基础与目的造成的危险)来确定其救济方式。
当一方违反中间条款情形严重,达到足以影响到合同的根本时(so seiours that goes to the root of the contract),或者剥夺了非违约方就其签订合同意图可获得的实质的全部利益时(deprives the innocent party of substantially the whole benefit which the parties intended he should obtain from the contract),其效果如同违反了条件条款,非违约方可主张解除合同,并主张损害赔偿。
(Hong Kkong Fir Shipping Co Ltd v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha Ltd) 案情: 日本著名的川崎汽船公司作为船东和香港的承租人签订了一份租期为2年的期租合同,租约包含适航义务条款,规定船舶在任何方面都应适合货运服务(in every way fitted for cargo service)。 在租约执行过程中,由于船员不适格的原因导致机器损坏,船舶在利物浦-弗吉尼亚-大阪的航次过程中进行修理,由于修理而导致的停租长达5周;船舶到达大阪后,另需修理15周。承租人声称船舶不适航,船东违约,因此解除合同。本案的争议焦点并不在于船东是否违约,因为船东的违约行为是较明确的,本案的争议焦点是船东的违约行为是否赋予承租人解除合同的权利?
最终,本案的适航条款没有被归为传统的条件条款或是保证条款,而是归为一个新的种类(其后被称为中间条款),就违反该类条款非违约方是否有权解除合同需取决于违约方的违约程度,如剥夺了另一方履行合同的根本利益则另一方有权利解除合同,法官并判定本案船东违反适航义务的行为并未剥夺承租人履行合同的根本利益,因此,承租人只能主张损害赔偿。
5. Exclusion clause 免责条款 The aim of exclusion clause is to exclude liability of one party or restrict it .
5.2 incorporation of exclusion clause General rules(3) Uncertainty arises over which terms have actually been incorporated into a contract. 5.2.1 contractual documents 5.2.2 signed contracts 5.2.3 prior information on terms
5.3 interpretation of exclusion clauses 一般的做法是,法院对模糊的免责条款的解释应不利于其提供者(contra proferentem rule)。 一般来说,免除或限制责任只能通过明确的用词来实现。
5.4 the “main purpose” rule在解释免责条款时,法院应推定该条款的目的并不在于损害合同的主要目的,也就是说其解释不能与合同的主要目的相违背。合同的主要目的的效力要优于免责条款。
5.5 Fundamental breach Fundamental breach, sometimes known as a repudiatory breach, is a breach so fundamental that it permits the aggrieved party to terminate performance of the contract, in addition to entitling that party to sue for damages.