科技時代的英語語法教學： 理論與實務 大同大學應用外語學系 李櫻

大綱 「3C語法」—科技時代的語法觀 ： 「3C語法」--功能為本的語法觀 語法教學的問題檢視 語法是甚麼？--理論的變革 功能語法簡介

測驗與教學實務中的語法檢視 ： 語用頻率效應(frequency effect)研究： 語料庫檢視 以語言輸入(language input)為基礎的語法學習模式

「3C語法」—科技時代的語法觀 一、「3C語法」--功能為本的語法觀： “3C”–當代語法描述之考量要素: corpus ：以語料庫檢視句型的實際使用與頻率 context ：以上下文情境呈現句型的功能 communication：語法為表情達意的溝通策略

二、語法教學出了甚麼問題？-- 教學現場實例：小學 (1) Look at me.  Look at you. (?) Brush your teeth.  Brush my teeth. (?) Raise your hand.  Raise my hand. (??)

(2) I see a monster. A monster is dancing in the park. I see a monster dancing in the park (3) It is a guava.  They are guavas. (one and the same picture?)

(4) She’s tired. She’s a tired stepsister. He’s sad and short. He’s a sad and short son. She’s happy and tall. She’s a happy and tall daughter. (5) This is my two-year-old picture.

教學現場實例：國中 (6) The food is so delicious that I feel very hungry. (7) Dear Joe, I take two kids to the department store. … (8) I am thirteen years old. = I am a thirteen-year-old boy.

(9) Did you remember me? --I remembered we saw a lot of people… (10) He writes a letter. He wrote a letter. He eats lunch. He ate lunch.

國中基測試題疑義舉例 (1) 時式在篇章中的使用 —91學年度第一次國中基學試題(16-18題) Ted sat next to me when we were in elementary school. He had serious problems in communicating with people. One always had to guess what he was saying. Besides, most of my classmates did not like to be with him because his hands and shirts were always dirty. I __(16)__ let him know the importance of being clean by telling him several times a day to wash his hands. But he just could not understand. 16. (A) tried to (B) am trying to (C) have tried to (D) will try to

One day, our teacher Miss Hsieh walked up to Ted One day, our teacher Miss Hsieh walked up to Ted. Without saying anything, she took Ted to the washroom. Slowly, Miss Hsieh washed his hands and told him that he should keep himself clean. She _17_ (did/was doing/has done/was going to do) that every day for one month. Finally, Ted understood. Miss Hsieh’s love has given me a good example to follow when I _ (18)_ my job. I always remember to teach my students by showing them the right ways to do things. And most important of all, I always remember to give them more time to learn and to grow up. 17. (A) did (B) was doing (C) has done (D) was going to do 18. (A) did (B) am doing (C) have done (D) am going to do

選項 A B C D 16. 通過率 *32.69 18.09 35.84 13.27 鑑別度 0.30 -0.28 0.10 -0.24 17. 通過率 *17.00 22.04 44.53 16.32 鑑別度 0.05 -0.21 0.31 -0.23 18. 通過率 18.03 *31.97 29.11 20.78 鑑別度 -0.01 0.26 -0.16 -0.11

(2) “…for thirty minutes” (93年基測) …When we finished talking, I found my sister was gone! I _____ her name loudly and looked for her for thirty minutes. Everyone was looking at me… (A) have called (B) will call (C) called (D) was calling

Q’s: 1. 無正解, 答案應為 had called 2. 課本內容未提及簡單過去式結尾可加“for+ㄧ段時間”，但清楚寫到現在完成式可加“for+ㄧ段時間”，故有超出範圍之嫌

心測中心回覆： “for+ㄧ段時間”之時間副詞，依照文意可與各種其他時態連用： Sue is very sick and has to stop working for several weeks.(92-2第11題) Miss Wu lived in the U.S. for almost five years, so she speaks good English. (習作IV, p.23) I wore them for many years and they were very comfortable. (習作V, p.28) I am going to stay in Japan for two weeks. We have studied English for two years. (第五冊, p.11)

(3)“逗”不“逗”有甚麼差別? —93學年度第二次國中基本學測試題(第25題) Two months later their team was playing an important game. The new student, Linda, kept making good shots. Karen felt unhappy. She wanted people to know 25 ; she wanted to be noticed. So she tried very hard to score baskets. 25. (A) she was Linda’s best friend (B) she could make good shots too (C) she could follow the game rules (D) she was paid well to play the game

(4)何謂「正統文法」？ 96年國中基測，國中老師針對13題提出如下的質疑： 13. In my family, my sister is the only person who _____ chocolate. My sister is the only person who…這裡的關係代名詞…不應該用who而應該用that…在正統文法中…先行詞之前若有the only、序數等字眼，其關代都應該用“that”。此題的錯誤不影響學生作答…但出題老師應給學生正確觀念，否則第二次基測若考出同樣文法，是否該送分？

國中基測中心答覆： 1.考題經過外籍老師審題； 2. 經查多本文法書，並諮詢本國籍與外籍教授， 確定英文文法規則並不存在上述老師所述之規 則； 3. 檢索英語語料庫，發現類似情況下使用who的 頻率甚高； 4. 基測試題一定會考慮實際語用，絕不會用不自 然的語言或空穴來風之教條式文法為難學生， 請老師不必擔心。

語法教學問題和省思 1.語法是甚麼? 文法用來規範我們如何造出合文法的句子? 文法規則是約定俗成的，沒有道理可言? 文法是讓我們可以表情達意、使語言溝通更連貫順暢的語用策略 許多文法規則其實是有道理、可以理解的

語言中確實存在某些約定俗成的、沒有道理可言的文法，但為數不多: 「主詞是第三人稱單數，動詞現在式要加-s」 「BE動詞形式隨著主詞不同而變化：第一人稱單數現在式為I am、第二人稱為you are、第三人稱為he is/she is」 「規則動詞過去式和過去分詞要加-ed」 「不規則動詞do的過去式是did，過去分詞是done」

但以下這些是文法規則嗎？ (1)句中主詞有兩個名詞A和B用連接詞連接時： Both A and B …，動詞用複數型 Either A or B …, neither A nor B … 依據B決定動詞單複數 A as well as B…, A no less than B… 則依據A決定動詞單複數

(2) How old are you? = What’s your age? (3)I’m 13. = I’m 13 years old. = I’m 13 years of age. = I’m a 13-year-old girl. (4)先行詞是the only或序數(the first/second等)，關代只能用that

2. 誰的語法? 語言的多元性 語言的變異性：英語的歷史演變 「文法權威」和「經典名著」的迷思

Forget me not. All that glitters is not gold. Had I known this, I would have told you. John is taller than I/me. Everyone should bring his/their books to class. Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal…

3. 當代語法描述之考量要素: “3C”– corpus ：語料庫檢視句型的使用頻率 context ：上下文情境顯示句型的用法 communication：語法為表情達意的溝通 策略

Context的重要：(一)再談過去式與現在完成式 I went to school yesterday. (last month, last week, two years ago, in 1995等) Cf. Ted sat next to me when we were in elementary school. He had serious problems in communicating with people. One always had to guess what he was saying. Besides, most of my classmates did not like to be with him because his hands and shirts were always dirty. I tried to let him know the importance of being clean by telling him several times a day to wash his hands. But he just could not understand…

Corpus的驗證：「活用圖解英文法」 the + 形容詞 = 1. 複數普通名詞（表示有此屬性的人）?? 2. 抽象名詞 （作主詞時，用單數動詞）?? The rich (= Rich people) are not always happier than the poor. (= poor people) The beautiful (= Beauty) lives forever. the true (= truth) 真 the kind (= kindness) 善 the beautiful (= beauty) 美

BNC 語料檢視結果： 最常用來指某國籍的人，如the British, the Irish the+ adj. 後面有可能跟單數和複數的動詞 These are not cases where the accused has caused death On these canvases, the visible is no longer an opening but something… this being the knowledge which the dominant has to suppress in order to rule… …the true can be separated from the false. …the true is really false

Communication: 句型的語意和語用考量 等句的迷思： John loves Mary = Mary is loved by John. ??? We saw John leave the room. =John was seen to leave the room by us. ??? He is a kind man. = He is a man of kindness. ??? I didn’t leave until he came. =Not until he came did I leave. =It was not until he came that I left.??? Cf. 他打破茶杯了/他把茶杯打破了 茶杯被他打破了/茶杯被打破了/茶杯打破了/茶杯破了

「下列時式均可用以表示未來」？ --功能有無差異？ The train is leaving for Taipei. The train will leave for Taipei. The train is going to leave for Taipei. The train is to leave for Taipei. The train leaves for Taipei at six-thirty. ?It rains tomorrow. She will have a baby./She is having a baby. You will fall./You’re going to fall. If you eat any more of the cake, you will die/you die.

語意和溝通考量可以減輕多少句法學習的負擔？ 名詞前的形容詞排列順序 A large national monument ?A national large monument A large African elephant ?An African large elephant A dumb four-legged animal ?A four-legged dumb animal A good bird-dog *A bird good dog

how bighow oldwhat colorwhere from what it is made of 這個順序是固定的文法規則嗎？ 決定形容詞順序的因素： 形容詞和名詞之語意關聯程度 這些類別的順序必須逐一記憶嗎？ 我們會同時使用許多形容詞來修飾一個名詞嗎？ We speak/write to communicate, not to confuse!

She swam across the channel. He rode the horse. He rode on the horse. 形式的緊密關聯反映語意的緊密關聯： I can’t hear her. I’ve never heard of her. She swam the channel. She swam across the channel. He rode the horse. He rode on the horse. She escaped him. She escaped from him. She approached the house. She moved toward the house. Givon (1993: 112)-(受詞受影響的程度有所區分)

三、語法理論的變革 A. 傳統文法Traditional Grammar Origin: 18th century grammarians Principles: Reason, authority, regularity a set of rules that regulate what are grammatical sentences and what are not

B. 衍生語法Generative Grammar (Noam Chomsky) a set of rules that generate well-formed sentences in a language

C. 功能語法Functional Grammar “Grammar is not a set of rigid rules that must be followed in order to produce grammatical sentences. Rather, grammar is a set of strategies that one employs to produce coherent communication.” English Grammar (Givon 1993:1)  Structures are motivated. (結構形式是有原因、有目的的)

語法是讓我們得以「表情」「達意」，使言語溝通能夠連貫順暢的一套語言策略。 功能語法的基本立場： 「句法結構並非獨立體﹝autonomy﹞，而是和語意、語用等層面息息相關、交互影響。」 句子的結構呼應其語意和語用功能 因此，以表情達意的觀點學習文法，應該可以簡化文法的學習

功能語法簡介 Pragmatics (Leech 1983, Grundy 2000, Levinson 2000, etc.) Discourse Analysis (Schiffrin 1995,Halliday & Hasan 1976, Tomlin 1985, etc.) Semantic Change (Traugott and Dasher 2002) Grammaticalization (Hopper & Traugott 1993) Frequency Effect (Bybee & Hopper 2001) Functional Syntax (Givon 1993, 1995) Language and Cognition………

功能語法的基本概念 Prototypicality (原型理論) Iconicity (像似性) Markedness (標記性)

Prototypical nouns (典型名詞特質): 1.原型理論和詞類劃分 典型詞類具有典型特質 Prototypical nouns (典型名詞特質): Semantic characteristics: Time-stable, concrete, complex, compact Syntactic behavior: S, DO, IO, Pred Formal marking: a/the, -s, prepositions, poss

(1)Prototypicality & variability: Go to school vs. go to the school In prison vs. in the prison Out of question vs. out of the question On top of this vs. on the top of this In front of … vs. in the front Ten-dollar bill Part of the question vs. a very important part of the question

for different communicative functions (2)Verbs  Nouns for different communicative functions Walk vs. take a walk Read vs. do some reading

像似性與詞序 基本句型結構：語詞選用和排列順序 語句中詞組順序往往反映 現實世界中事件牽涉的語意順序 They got married and had a child. They had a child and got married.

(1)名詞前的形容詞排列順序 (iconicity) A large national monument ?A national large monument A large African elephant ?An African large elephant A dumb four-legged animal ?A four-legged dumb animal A good bird-dog *A bird good dog

how bighow oldwhat colorwhere from what is it made of Is this a fixed order？ Factors deciding the order of prenominal adjectives： 形容詞和名詞之語意關聯程度 (??)A big old yellow Japanese wool sweater --We speak/write to communicate, not to confuse!

(2) 形式的緊密關聯反映語意的緊密關聯： I can’t hear her. I’ve never heard of her. She swam the channel. She swam across the channel. He rode the horse. He rode on the horse. She escaped him. She escaped from him. She approached the house. She moved toward the house. Givon (1993: 112)- (受詞受影響的程度有所區分)

(3)「感官動詞」、「使役動詞」的用法： 為什麼一個語句裡會有兩個「動詞」？ 為什麼這種結構特質多限於感官動詞和使役動詞？ 關鍵概念─event integration ﹝兩個事件之間語意是否有密切關聯﹞ She let him go home. She saw him come out.

Freedom of choice 從句主事者有無選擇自由 Independent action 從句動作之獨立性 語意關聯程度的取決因素可能包括: Control 操控: Intent and agentivity 主句主事者之意願和主事性 Direct contact 兩個事件是否有直接接觸 Degree of resistance 從句主事者抗拒程度強弱 Freedom of choice 從句主事者有無選擇自由 Independent action 從句動作之獨立性

(4)Form-Function Correspondences: 語意考量可以減輕多少句法學習的負擔？…to V vs. V-ing He stopped to play the piano. He stopped playing the piano. He forgot to mail the letter. He forgot mailing the letter. He wanted to watch the film. He kept/regretted/enjoyed watching the film. Nice to meet you. vs. Nice meeting you.

(5) suggest, insist, command, order 等動詞後之子句中的動詞用原形或should +原形動詞 He insisted that John (should) leave right away. ---(weak manipulation vs. preference) But: He insisted that it was true.

3. 標記性 Marked patterns are used for marked purposes in marked contexts. 無標結構結構較簡單、常反應認知的常模、出現頻率高，有標結構則反之。 我們不但透過語言報導客觀事實，也透過語言傳遞主觀的看法、意願、態度。 --因此，不同的語句結構具有不同的言談語用功能，用以傳遞說話者不同的溝通目的。

(1)被動句 Givon (1993:53)的主動句和被動句分布 語體 數量 百分比 數量 百分比 學術 49 82% 11 18%   主動句 被動句 語體 數量 百分比 數量 百分比 學術 49 82% 11 18% 小說 177 91% 18 9% 新聞 45 92% 4 8% 體育 64 96% 3 4%

a. He wrote the book. The book was written by him. b. I laid a book on the desk. A book was laid on the desk by me. (??) b. I love him. He is loved by me. (??) He is well loved by everyone in the class. c. I was caught in the traffic. (主動句???) d. They say that she has left. It is said that she has left. She is said to have left.

被動句的功能： 受事者為語句主題 主事者為新訊息 迴避主事者、主事者不重要 語句描述狀態(而非動作) 語體的客觀性

(2)不同的結構句型表達不同功能 花瓶被我打破了 花瓶被打破了 花瓶打破了 花瓶破了 The door was closed by John. The door was closed. The door closed. The door is closed. 花瓶被我打破了 花瓶被打破了 花瓶打破了 花瓶破了

結語 句法形式結構與其語用功能相互呼應 語法內容必須以語料庫為本，才能忠實反映語法的真正運作 唯有在足夠的語境(context)中，才能充分理解句型結構的溝通功能(communicative function)