關鍵字：amour propre, social dependence, general will, citizens’ assembly, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778, Genevan Philosopher) 中心德目：freedom 授課教師：陳嘉銘 關鍵字：amour propre, social dependence, general will, citizens’ assembly, 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用CC「姓名標示－非商業性－相同方式分享」台灣3.0版授權釋出】

盧梭的重要著作： 科學與藝術復興是否帶來道德純淨 盧梭的重要著作： 科學與藝術復興是否帶來道德純淨?(1750) (“First Discourse”) 論人類不平等的起源和基礎(1754) (“Second Discourse”) 社會契約論(1762) 愛彌兒(1762) 新哀綠綺絲(Nouvelle Heloise)(1760) 懺悔錄(1770) 孤單行走者的夢(1782) 1. Académie de Dijon  2.羅馬人原本都非常的有德行，他們可以找元老院裡面找到兩百個有德性的人，這是天底下最美的景象。可是一但他們可以「研讀」這些德行，所有的德行都失去了。科學和藝術，一定和「奢華」在一起。喜歡奢華的人的靈魂不可能結合誠實，也不可能成為偉大的靈魂。藝術家會開始取悅所有他當代的人，而不可能真正去創作他現在不受歡迎，但永可以為後世流傳的作品。「奢華」必然會腐敗道德。隨著生活的便利，藝術增進，奢華擴散，真正的勇氣也會枯萎，戰士的德性消失。當羅馬人一開始變成博學多聞，對繪畫雕刻精緻藝術，他們的戰士德行就消失了。所以在古老的共和國，他們禁止公民從事安靜和靜坐的工作，因為他們的身體一旦鬆懈和腐敗，他們靈魂的活力，也會跟著枯委。我們有物理學家, 幾何學家, 化學家, 天文學家, 詩人, 音樂家, 畫家，可是我們再也沒有公民。

Our Lives, Miserable and Wicked ** “Men are wicked, a sad and constant experience makes proof unnecessary.” (Second Discourse) ** Endless needs of others’ interest in fulfilling your needs (a) necessity to deceive all those he needs (b) hidden desire to profit at another’s expense (c) black inclination to harm one another (d) secret jealously: assumes the mask of benevolence in order to strikes its blow in greater safety

Hobbes’s (and Locke’s) Miserable Modern Men Competitive, Clever, Industrious, Individualistic, Wealth-pursuing 無止盡地競爭財富和傑出、不真誠、懷疑別人對你有惡意、沒有朋友、 modern society is still a war of everyman against everyman: solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, short->long

Our Lives, Miserable and Wicked 1. Unfree: man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. One thinks himself the master of others, and still remains a greater slave than they. (Social Contract) 2. Unequal: Deep, gross and fated inequality everywhere: Wealth, power, social status, fame rules and laws(unfair?), ranking, social institutions, social structures, roles, deep dependence upon others natural inequality really natural? beauty, strength, talents, health, age, mental and physical capacity,

Modern Men’s amour-propre （活在他人眼光裡的自愛心） he is capable of living only in the eyes of others. He is forced to constantly compare himself with others. He is happy because he owns the good he desires but he desires the good only because others desire it. And his happiness lasts only before others acquire the same good as him. He cannot distinguish between his own desire and the desire brought about by others’ opinion. Opinion decides his happiness and rules his life. Without others’ affirmation, testimony and respect, he cannot affirm his sentiment, cannot enjoy his happiness, and cannot respect himself. He, always living outside of himself, is driven in frenzy for competing distinctions. (Emile)

現代人必然是悲慘又卑劣的布爾喬亞人，不再可能是Homer或Plutarch筆下高貴和美麗的古典英雄。 每個現代人都是布爾喬亞的事實，是對人類的永久貶抑和威脅。 盧梭要親手重鑄布爾喬亞人，讓我們每個現代人都有可能彷彿古典英雄那樣美麗和高貴。 (這怎有可能？！)

盧梭的靈光 這些悲慘和惡劣的起源為何？ “that man is naturally good, and that it is solely by [our] institutions that men become wicked” (Rousseau, Lettres a Malessherbes)

需要講一個關於人的真正歷史， 隨著文明的進展， 人的心靈和能力發展和進步， 卻也因此變得悲慘和卑劣的故事

Pure state of nature (solitary being -> households) Nascent Society (savage society -> introduction of agriculture) Most Horrible State of War The Rich’s Offer of Contract Various Kinds of Problematic Governments The Social Contract 理想的共和國

盧梭的自然狀態 “man is naturally good” 在理性和社會性未發展之前， 人的需求很少，能力也不需要太多 每個人很自然地只愛自己、只關注自己，滿足自己自保和憐憫的簡單需求，自足，不必然需要傷害他人。 （這裡所謂的”naturally good”，不是指人有幫助他人、從事德行和正義的天性。僅僅指因為容易自足，所以不需要做惡劣的事)

Two kinds of Self-love amour de soi: desire of primitive self-preservation and pity (自然狀態，未考慮他人眼光，每個人天生就是愛自己、關心自己的。) amour propre: the desire to shine in the eyes of others and to climb up the social ladder (活在他人眼光中的自愛 )

人們互相比較和競爭的社會不平等 可化約為四種標的： 優秀、財富、權力、地位 (1)競爭「優秀」原是競爭其他不平等的起源 (2)這四種標的最終又都可化約為對財富追求。 (可以買其他三種的不平等，方便移轉)

So long as men remained content with their rustic huts, so long as they were satisfied with clothes made of the skins of animals and sewn together with thorns and fish-bones, adorned themselves only with feathers and shells, and continued to paint their bodies different colours, to improve and beautify their bows and arrows and to make with sharp-edged stones fishing boats or clumsy musical instruments; in a word, so long as they undertook only what a single person could accomplish, and confined themselves to such arts as did not require the joint labour of several hands, they lived free, healthy, honest and happy lives, so long as their nature allowed, and as they continued to enjoy the pleasures of mutual and independent intercourse. But from the moment one man began to stand in need of the help of another; from the moment it appeared advantageous to any one man to have enough provisions for two, equality disappeared, property was introduced, work became indispensable, and vast forests became smiling fields, which man had to water with the sweat of his brow, and where slavery and misery were soon seen to germinate and grow up with the crops. (Rousseau, Second Discourse, Part II, [19])

I could explain how much this universal desire for reputation, honours and advancement, which inflames us all, exercises and holds up to comparison our faculties and powers; how it excites and multiplies our passions, and, by creating universal competition and rivalry, or rather enmity, among men, occasions numberless failures, successes and disturbances of all kinds by making so many aspirants run the same course. I could show that it is to this desire of being talked about, and this unremitting rage of distinguishing ourselves, that we owe the best and the worst things we possess, both our virtues and our vices, our science and our errors, our conquerors and our philosophers; that is to say, a great many bad things, and a very few good ones. In a word, I could prove that, if we have a few rich and powerful men on the pinnacle of fortune and grandeur, while the crowd grovels in want and obscurity, it is because the former prize what they enjoy only in so far as others are destitute of it; and because, without changing their condition, they would cease to be happy the moment the people ceased to be wretched. (Rousseau, Second Discourse, Part II, [52])

In reality, the source of all these differences is, that the savage lives within himself, while social man lives constantly outside himself, and only knows how to live in the opinion of others, so that he seems to receive the consciousness of his own existence merely from the judgment of others concerning him. It is not to my present purpose to insist on the indifference to good and evil which arises from this disposition, in spite of our many fine works on morality, or to show how, everything being reduced to appearances, there is but art and mummery in even honour, friendship, virtue, and often vice itself, of which we at length learn the secret of boasting; to show, in short, how, always asking others what we are, and never daring to ask ourselves, in the midst of so much philosophy, humanity and civilisation, and of such sublime codes of morality, we have nothing to show for ourselves but a frivolous and deceitful appearance, honour without virtue, reason without wisdom, and pleasure without happiness. It is sufficient that I have proved that this is not by any means the original state of man, but that it is merely the spirit of society, and the inequality which society produces, that thus transform and alter all our natural inclinations. (Rousseau, Second Discourse, Part II, [57])

Pure state of nature (solitary being -> households) Nascent Society (savage society -> introduction of agriculture) Most Horrible State of War The Rich’s Offer of Contract Various Kinds of Problematic Governments The Social Contract 理想的共和國

Rousseau’s Social Contract 在戰爭狀態的階段，尋求共同力量追求自保，是組成公民社會的原始動機。 可是社會繼續被炙烈的amour propre驅使，政府被追求各種不平等的人(階級)所掌握。 要找到一種政治形式，可以節制amour propre驅使追求的社會和政治不平等，每個人「彷彿」享有和自然狀態一樣的自由，避免暴君和各種不義的支配。

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 1-24 本作品轉載自http://www.templateswise.com/ 設計範本，造訪日期：2016年09月13日 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用

版權聲明 Author: H. Rousseau (graphic designer), E.Thomas (engraver) 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 2 Author: H. Rousseau (graphic designer), E.Thomas (engraver) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:AduC_004_J.-.J._Rousseau_(1712-1778).JPG This work is in the public domain in its country of origin and other countries and areas where the copyright term is the author's life plus 100 years or less. 瀏覽日期：2016/01/30。本作品為公共財。 3 盧梭的重要著作……孤單行走者的夢(1782) 文字提供：國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 4 Men are wicked, a sad and constant ……experience makes proof unnecessary J. J. Rousseau, “Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men”(or “Second Discourse”) in The Discourses and Other Early Political Writings, ed. and trans. Victor Gourevitch (Cambridge University Press, 1997) 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 Endless needs ……its blow in greater safety 文字提供：國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘 5 Competitive……short->long 6 man is born free……greater slave than they

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 6 Deep, gross ……social status, fame 文字提供：國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘 7 he is capable ……is driven in frenzy for competing distinctions. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emile 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 8 現代人必然是悲慘又……這怎有可能？！ 9 that man is naturally ……men become wicked Rousseau, Lettres a Malessherbes 10 需要講一個……卑劣的故事 11 Pure state of nature……理想的共和國 列表整理：國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘 12 在理性和社會性未……做惡劣的事

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 13 desire of ……中的自愛 文字提供：國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘 14 人們互相比較……方便移轉 15 So long as men ……and grow up with the crops Rousseau, Second Discourse, Part II, [19] 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 16 I could explain how much ……the people ceased to be wretched. Rousseau, Second Discourse, Part II, [52] 17 In reality, the source of ……alter all our natural inclinations Rousseau, Second Discourse, Part II, [57] 18 Pure state of nature……理想的共和國 19 在戰爭狀態的階段……不義的支配。