Chapter 1 第一章 Ecology and Ecosystems 生态学与生态系统 Ruan, Honghua 阮 宏 华 南 京 林 业 大 学

Concepts and Development of Ecology 1.1 The Definition of Ecology 什么是生态学? 1.2 Subdivisions of ecology 生态学的分支 1.3 The levels of biological organization生物学组织层次 1.4 The history and its development of Ecology 生态学的历史和发展

2. Ecosystems 生态系统 2.1 Definition of ecosystem 生态系统的概念 2.2 The Ecosystem basic principles 生态系统的基本特征

1.1 The Definition of Ecology 什么是生态学? 什么是森林生态学? The scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environments (abiotic and biotic). 1). Abiotic: non-living factors (temperature, light, water, and nutrients) 2) Biotic: living factors (other plants and animals)

Forest Ecology: Is merely the application of general ecology to a specific type of objects (ecosystem): Forest.

What is Ecology?- the points: Ecology is a branch of biological science concerned with the distribution, abundance, and productivity of living organisms, and their interactions with each other and with their physical environment. As a scientific discipline, it is a relative young and lacks the large body of generally accepted principle and theories that characterize older discipline such as physics and chemistry. Relationships between living organisms and their environment.

1.2 Subdivisions of ecology 生态学的分支 按研究对象的组织层次划分： 分子生态学（molecule ecology） 个体生态学（autoecology） 种群生态学（population ecology） 群落生态学（community ecology） 生态系统生态学（ecosystem ecology） 景观生态学（landscape ecology） 全球生态学（global ecology）等

按生物类群划分： 动物生态学（animal ecology） 植物生态学（plant ecology） 昆虫生态学（insectecology） 微生物生态学（microbial ecology） 人类生态学（human ecology）

按栖息地划分( 生态系统类型)：  淡水生态学（fresh-water ecology） 海洋生态学（marine ecology） 河口生态学（estuary ecology） 湿地生态学（wetland ecology） 热带生态学（tropical ecology） 陆地生态学（terrestial ecology） 森林生态学（forest ecology） 草地生态学（grassland ecology） 荒漠生态学（desertecology） 冻原生态学（tundra ecology）。

按交叉学科划分：  数学生态学（mathematical ecology） 化学生态学（chemical ecology） 物理生态学（physical ecology） 地理生态学（geographic ecology） 生理生态学physiological ecology） 进化生态学（evolutionary ecology） 行为生态学（behavioral ecology） 遗传生态学（genetic ecology） 经济生态学（economic ecology）等

按应用领域划分： 农业生态学（agroecology） 城市生态学 (urban ecology) 污染生态学（pollution ecology） 渔业生态学（fishery ecology 放射生态学（radio ecology） 资源生态学（resource ecology）等

生态学是新兴的边缘学科，其综合性特别强，它甚至就是对整个人类文明的反思和整合，它从自然跋涉到社会，从物质寻觅到精神，从空间摆渡到时间，从微观流浪到宏观。它企图通过对人类文明发展的方式的反思，来构建新的世界观、文明观、发展观。它希望各领域的专家学者都走下各自的神坛，相聚在生态学这面旗帜下，团结合作，齐心协力，为了人类文明的可持续发展不断探索、思考、创造，把我们唯一的家园--地球建设成为美好的适人居家园，使人与大自然走向最高和谐。我们只有一个地球，地球是我们唯一的生存家园 ，让我们所有人都携起手来，共同建设我们的生存环境、生活环境、发展环境，实现人类社会的可持续发展。  

1.3 The levels of biological organization 生物学组织层次 Based on structural levels from least to Most Inclusive 1) Atoms (原子) 2) Molecules(分子) 3)Organelles (细胞器) 4)Cells(细胞) 5)Tissues(组织) 6) Organs (器官) 7.)organs systems (器官系统) ® The Realm Of Ecology

8) Organisms Individuals (species) composed of many specialized cells.

9) Populations Localized groups of organisms belonging to the same species. Groups of individuals of the same species living together.

10) Community Populations of organisms living together in the same environment. Four properties: 1. Diversity 2. Prevalent form of vegetation 3. Stability (resist change) 4. Trophic structure (feeding structure)

11) Ecosystem Dynamic system of organisms interacting with each other (biotic) and the inanimate environment (abiotic).

12) Biomes Broad geographic region with a characteristic array of organisms. Examples: 1. Tropical rain forest 2. Desert 3. Chaparral 4. Estuaries 5. Coral reefs

13) Biosphere Entire surface of the earth and its organisms.

Classic Subdivisions of ecology and the levels of biological organization The science of ecology has several classic subdivisions, each of which is associated with a different level of biological organization 1) Autecology: study of the life history and the response to its environment of a single individual or species is frequently referred to as – for example, the food requirements of a deer, pr the temperature tolerance of Douglas-fir seedlings

2) Population ecology: Study of the abundance, distribution, productivity, and/or dynamics of a group of organisms of the same type would be classified as- for example, an investigation of competition for light and nutrients in a pine plantation. 3) Community Ecology: Studies involving the description and quantification of some aspect of a nature assemblage of different species of organisms are classified as- for example, a study of the change in plant and animal communities in an area over time 4) Ecosystem ecology: study involving both the biotic community and its abiotic environment are classified as-, for example, a study of the interrelationships between the plant community and the soil.

1.4 The history and its development of Ecology 生态学的历史和发展 1) The period of ancient ecology or purely empirical period » Hunting: to hunt success of early humans, they must know a lot about the behavior, food requirement , habitat. » Agriculture : domestication of animals and plants. In the fourth century, B. C. , Aristotle wrote about plagues of field mice and locusts. There is a evidence in these early writing of a recognition of a “balance of nature” and a harmony among plants, animals and humans.

One of the first ecologists may have been Aristotle who was interested in many species of animals. His work is usually considered the origin of modern ecology.

» In china, for example: 风水术 “淮南子”: 欲知其地,物其树(公元前二世纪) “齐民要术” (公元533-544) “本草纲目” (李时珍)

2) Earlier modern times » Thomas Malthus : “Essay on population” 1798, which has been referred to as “certainly one of the most influential in the history of western thought” . 1766-1834 a political economist , England

» A. Humboldt(洪得保,1769 - 1859) , 1807 “Plant geography” Humboldt is often considered the true father of ecology. He was the first to take on the study of the relationship between organisms and their environment. He exposed the existing relationships between observed plant species and climate, and described vegetation zones using latitude and altitude, a discipline now known as geobotany

Throughout the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, the great maritime powers such as France and Germany, launched many world exploratory expeditions to develop maritime commerce with other countries, and to discover new natural resources, as well as to catalog them. At the beginning of the 18th century, about twenty thousand plant species were known, versus forty thousand at the beginning of the 19th, and almost 400,000 today. These expeditions were joined by many scientists, including botanist, such as the German explorer Alexander von Humboldt Humboldt is often considered the true father of ecology. He was the first to take on the study of the relationship between organisms and their environment. He exposed the existing relationships between observed plant species and climate, and described vegetation zones using latitude and altitude, a discipline now known as geobotany.

» C. Darwin, 1809,2,12—1882,4,19 British Naturalist, was born in shrewsbury England. 1859, “The Origin of Species ” Darwin's theory of evolution , on the origin of species by means of Natural Selection (Catastrophism is the theory that Earth has been affected by sudden, short-lived, violent events that were sometimes worldwide in scope. The Biblical story of the Great Flood is a prime example of catastrophism. )

» Reither and Hackel (海克尔,German Zoologists) 1869, as a new science was coined originally as “Oecologia” » Warming , 1895,”ecological plant geography”

3) Modern times ecology This centry, 1920- Tansley (1929), Clements (1916), Spurr (1970)-Forest ecologgy E.P. Odum (1983)– fundamental ecology J.P. kimmins- Forest ecology

The ecosystem concept and Arthur Tansley (1871-1955) Over the 19th century, botanical geography and zoogeography combined to form the basis of biogeography. Biogeography, which deals with habitats of species, is often confused with ecology, which seeks to explain the reasons for the presence of certain species in a given location. It was in 1935 that Arthur Tansley, the british ecologist, coined the term Ecosystem, the interactive system established between the biocenose (the group of living creatures), and their biotope, the environment in which they live. Ecology thus became the science of ecosystems

Gaia theory (science) In science, a Gaia theory is a class of scientific models of the biosphere in which life fosters and maintains suitable conditions for itself by affecting Earth's environment. One such theory was created by the English atmospheric scientist James Lovelock in 1969. He hypothesized that the living matter of the planet functioned like a single organism and named this self-regulating living system after the Greek Goddess Gaia. Gaia theories have non-technical predecessors in the ideas of several cultures. Meanwhile today, "Gaia theory" is sometimes used among non-scientists to refer to theories of a self-regulating Earth that are non-technical but take inspiration from the scientific models. Among some scientists "Gaia" carries connotations of scientifically unrigorous quasi-mystical thinking about Earth, and Lovelock's own hypothesis was received initially with much antagonism by the scientific community. No controversy exists now, however, that life and the physical environment significantly influence one another.

现代生态学发展阶段划分 从 1 86 6年海克尔提出生态学的科学概念以来 ,至 2 0 0 4年共经历 1 3 8年。生态学在这 1 3 4年的发展过程 ,有很大变化 ,它的研究对象、内容、任务和方法不断地演变 ,拓宽 ,愈来愈受到世人普遍关注。据此 ,根据生态学不同发展时期的特点 ,可以划分为 3个不同的阶段。第 1阶段由 1 86年至 1 953年 ,第 2阶段由 1 954年至 1 971年 ,第 3阶段由 1 972年以后。 1　第一阶段 (1 866～ 1 953) 在第一阶段 88年的时间中 ,生态学的领域发展较完善的主要是植物生态学 ,也仅是作为植物学科的一个分支 ,进行该学科的独立研究。研究对象主要研究在自然状况下环境对植物个体、种群或群落的影响 ,在研究方法上早期着重野外的调查研究是描述性 ,解释性的。二战结束后 ,进入 50年代开始有小规模 ,分散独立的定位试验。因地理位置和环境条件的不同 ,植物群落组成的植物种类不同 ,结构和功能各异 ,因而表现出的群落外貌也不同。据此 ,进行植物群落分布 ,分类研究。在此基础上 ,逐步较深入研究环境因素中如土壤、水分、温度、光照、热量分别对植物个体 ,或种群 ,或群落的影响 ,并开始注意群落对环境的影响。 中华民国时期 ,植物学家们多偏重在分类方面的研究 ,少数植物地理学家、生态学家都更少。据汪振儒(1 90 8年～ )追记 ,张延 (镜澄 )(1 884～ 1 950年 )早在 1 91 9年左右讲授《植物生态学》,据查可能是国内最早的。1 92 2年 ,邹秉文 (1 893～ 1 985年 )、胡先肃 (1 894～ 1 96 8年 )和钱崇澍 (1 883～ 1 96 5年 )编写的《高等植物学》出 版 ,在该书中提到植物生态学。 1 92 7年 ,钱崇澍发表了有关安徽黄山植物生态研究专门报告 ,可谓近代植物生态学研究在我国的开端。钱崇澍、李继侗 (1 897～ 1 96 1年 )、仲崇信 (1 90 8年～ )、沈其益 (1 90 9年 )、汪振儒、曲仲湘 (1 90 4～ 1 990年 )、董爽秋等先后在中央大学、清华大学、浙江大学、四川大学、复旦大学及中山大学等校开设 了植物生态学课程 ,为我国植物生态学的教学和研究起了奠基和推进作用。 1 93 0年张延、董爽秋合著《植物生态学》出版。这可能是我国出版最早有关植物生态学的著作。据我所知 ,1 93 6年乐天宇教授在河南大学曾开设讲授过《植物生态学》,并编有讲义。 1 949年 3月正中书局出版陈植教授编著《造林学原论》,这本书是定大学用书 ,是森林系的教科书。在该书的第二篇 ,森林之地论 ,已经是最早的森林生态了。 中华人民共和国建立后 ,生态学的研究仍是薄弱环节 ,在这一段时间中作高校教材或专著仅有前苏联 A. n谢尼阔夫著 (王汶译 )《植物生态学》,是当时高教部推荐教材。这本教材 1 953年 2月由上海新农出版社出版。

　第二阶段 (1 954～ 1 971 ) 第二阶段的起点为什么定在 1 954年。在这一年召开的第三届国际生态学会 ,会议决定丰富了生态学的研究内容 ,提出要研究生物种和群落的形成和发展及历史条件下产生的适应性。在这会议中 ,还议定 :“生态学家注意研究与生活环境相联系的生物适应性和数量 ,研究在不同自然地理景观和人类定向生产活动条件下 ,受生物群落影响的环境变化。”生态学由独立单学科的理论研究 ,进入研究与人类生活、生产环境的关系 ,标示着进入应用研究 ,因而 1 954年是生态学新的跨越 ,是具历史性的。从此 ,生态学由原来只有科学家研究的狭小圈子 ,发展成为受到世人普遍关注应用领域。 第二阶段的 1 8年中 ,生态学得到的迅速的发展。 1 956年 ,何景编著《植物生学》,高教出版社出版。 1 958年 ,中国林业出版社出版乐天宇著《植物生态学》。熊文愈主编《森林生态学》,1 959年中国林业出版社出版 ,这本书是作为华东华中地区高等林业院校教材。1 96 2年农业出版社出版陈嵘著《中国森林植物地理学》。前苏 M.B.柯尔比柯夫著《森林学》,B. T.聂斯均洛夫著《森林学》,M. E.特卡钦柯著《森林学》的中译本 ,分别于 1 956年 ,1 957年和 1 959年由中国林业出版社出版。这一时期翻译出版前苏有关地植物学、植物地理、植物群落等方面的著作很多 ,如 E. A.欠科夫著《地植物学》。B. B.阿略兴等《植物地理学》中译本先后出版。 1 96 6年还出版1 1 .雅罗申著《地植物学》。 E. B.吴鲁夫著《历史植物地理学引论》、《历史植物地理学》二书的中译本 ,分别于 1 96 0年和 1 96 4年出版。E.瓦尔明著《植物生态学》中译本 ,1 96 5年科学出版社出版。这本书是世界公认的植物生态学奠基著作。 1 96 2年《寂静的春天》在美国出版后 ,唤起人们的生态醒觉。 1 970年在美国进行保护地球 ,保护人类居住环境的群众运动。为了保护人类生态环境 ,必须要进行生态学的研究 ,人们需要生态学 ,参与生态学 ,有力地推动生态学向纵深发展。 第二阶段 ,生态学在研究方法、研究内容和任务 ,都有很大的变化。生态学从单一学科 ,小范围的研究 ,转向综合研究。研究人类生态环境遭受破坏的机制 ,带来危害的程度及影响后果 ,生态环境保护和建设的策略和技术方法 ,生态学成为人人关心的热门学科。 1 96 5～ 1 972年全球规模的国际生物学计划 (IBP),是以生态环境研究为主的 ,将世界各地分散的研究 ,组织成网络 ,生态学的研究走向全球大动作的开始。

第三阶段 (1 972年～ ) 为什么将 1 972年作为第三阶段的开始 ,这一年联合国召开了第一届人类环境会议 ,通过《人类环境宣言》。提出《只有一个地球》的报告 ,并开始酝酿“可持续发展”新发展模式的战略思想。同年 ,联合国环境规划署成立。人类生态环境的保护和建议 ,开始得到各国政府的关注 ,是“环境时代”的开始。 世界各国的生态学和环境学家 ,以及方方面面的人 ,又经过 2 0年的努力 ,至 1 992年联合召开有各国政府首脑参加世界环发大会 ,会议制的《2 1世纪议程》,成为各国政府必须共同遵守的行为准则。生态环境的保护和建设 ,从此纳入政府行为。 生态环境的危害虽是没有国界的 ,但发达国家对生态环境的危害是有输出的 ,转嫁发展中国家 ,特别是经济落后的国家 ,这是不道德的殖民行为 ,因而全球大协作中 ,发达国家应多承担责任和多尽义务。 1 972年开始“人和生物圈”研究计划 (MAB),推动生态学研究的全球化 ,生态学及有关的著作大量出版 ,并有专门的生态期刊。 2 0世纪 90年代开始 ,生态学已经着重在人类环境保护和建设的研究。在研究内容和方法上已经有理论研究和应用研究之分 ,但二者是不可分割的两部分 ,构建成现代生态学的学科体系。 生态学理论研究主要研究生态环境运行规律及可能突发的灾变 ,人与环境互为因果的反馈 ,环境破坏机制 ,生态危害机理等方面的研究。在研究方法上有野外定位试验 ,室内实验分析 ,系统模拟 ,系统分析等。生态学的应用研究如进行生态区划规划 ,按照生态学的原理要求 ,在保护生态环境的前提下 ,安排发展区域经济。运用生态学操作程序和技术方法 ,进行策略 ,战略管理等。在具体方法上有资料应用分析 ,规划方案的编制 ,工程实施规定、质量标准等。生态学的研究虽集理论研究和应用研究于一体 ,但必须有多学科 ,多兵种共同参与才能达到预期研究目的。 综上所述 ,可以看出生态学在 1 3 4年的形成和发展过程中 ,经历了由少数科学家作为单一学科 ,进行理性探讨研究。人类居住环境出现生态危机 ,当人们生态醒观之后 ,关心并参与生态环境保护群众运动。再进入 ,生态环境保护和建设成为政府行为 ,这是一个漫长的艰辛过程。 生态学发展至今天已经远远超越了科学本身 ,它的意义和重要关系着地球生物的死亡 ,成为人类生存发展的保护神。离开生态学的研究和应用 ,人类社会就没有可持续发展而言。在世界范围之内 ,从国家元首、政府首脑到平民百姓 ,都在关注生态环境 ,都在关注生态学的发展和应用 ,是人类生存的需要。

2. Ecosystems 生态系统

A. Tansley, 1935 , proposed the term “ Ecosystem” 2.1 Definition of Ecosystem 生态系统的概念 A. Tansley, 1935 , proposed the term “ Ecosystem” Ecological Systems Ecosystem

ECOSYSTEM- Functional unit of variable size composed of living and nonliving parts, which interact. Component parts of the whole system function through a sequence of operations involving energy and the transfer of energy.

(1) Ecosystem basic components 2.2 The Ecosystem basic principles 生态系统的基本特征 (1) Ecosystem basic components

太阳能 消费者 消费者 生产 分解者 无机物

Light Temperature Water Gases Soil Etc. Producer Consumer Decomposer Biotic components 生物成分 Abiotic components 非生物成分 Producer Light Temperature Water Gases Soil Etc. Consumer Decomposer

(2) Ecological Systems are Hierarchical 生态系统是一个等级系统 Everything in ecological systems is connected in space and time. Boundaries are assigned to ecological systems by humans for convenience, to facilitate analysis, or for manipulation. The boundaries, or scale, may be changed, depending on human requirements, values, or desired resource use. For example, a wetland, a field, a farm, or a watershed can all be considered ecological systems.

(3) Ecological Systems are Complex 生态系统是一个复杂系统 The living and non-living components of ecological systems are interconnected and interdependent. A change in any part ripples through the system similar to the effect of a rock tossed into a pond. An ecological system is a dynamic continuum. There is tremendous complexity reflected in many cause and effect interrelationships.

(4) Ecological Systems are Dynamic 生态系统是一个动态系统 Ecological systems are always changing. The organisms, numbers, and relationships change in a process of succession. The species present and the physical environment control the patterns, rates, and limits of this succession. As an ecological system matures, species stabilize and energy is stored.

(5) Ecological Systems Perform Critical Life-Support Functions 生态系统是生命系统 Matter cycles through ecological systems. For example, carbon is captured by growing plants from carbon dioxide in the air through the process of photosynthesis.

Ecosystem is an function system

(6) Humans are an Integral Part of Ecological Systems Human values and activities influence the structure and functions of ecological systems. Human actions result in direct and indirect impacts, both adverse and beneficial.

(7) Ecological System Knowledge is Incomplete The relationships between living organisms and their environment are part of an ecological system's complexity and are not fully understood. While our knowledge of the natural world grows daily, some important relationships regarding the effects of management activities on resources and ecological system functions are unknown. Although our knowledge is incomplete, we still provide assistance based upon the best available knowledge derived from cooperative efforts. To understand ecological system complexity, scientific data and technical tools are used to help evaluate impacts upon ecological system components and processes. In many instances, individual effects to the ecological system cannot be directly determined; therefore, indicators are used to describe effects. Predicting both on-site and off-site effects upon ecological system components is essential and is an inherent part of conservation planning.

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 GRADING:   FINAL GRADES:  First Lecture Exam 20%    Second Lecture Exam 20%  Final Comprehensive Exam 25%    Laboratory 35% A = 90-100%   B = 80-89%  C = 70-79% D = 60-69% F = 0-59%