關鍵字：amour propre, social dependence, general will, citizens’ assembly, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778, Genevan Philosopher) 中心德目：freedom 授課教師：陳嘉銘 關鍵字：amour propre, social dependence, general will, citizens’ assembly, 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用CC「姓名標示－非商業性－相同方式分享」台灣3.0版授權釋出】

盧梭的自然狀態 “man is naturally good” 在理性和社會性未發展之前， 人的需求很少，能力也不需要太多 每個人很自然地只愛自己、只關注自己，滿足自己自保和憐憫的簡單需求，自足，不必然需要傷害他人。 （這裡所謂的”naturally good”，不是指人有幫助他人、從事德行和正義的天性。僅僅指因為容易自足，所以不需要做惡劣的事)

Two kinds of Self-love amour de soi: desire of primitive self-preservation and pity (自然狀態，未考慮他人眼光，每個人天生就是愛自己、關心自己的。) amour propre: the desire to shine in the eyes of others and to climb up the social ladder (活在他人眼光中的自愛 )

人們互相比較和競爭的社會不平等 可化約為四種標的： 優秀、財富、權力、地位 (1)競爭「優秀」原是競爭其他不平等的起源 (2)這四種標的最終又都可化約為對財富追求。 (可以買其他三種的不平等，方便移轉)

So long as men remained content with their rustic huts, so long as they were satisfied with clothes made of the skins of animals and sewn together with thorns and fish-bones, adorned themselves only with feathers and shells, and continued to paint their bodies different colours, to improve and beautify their bows and arrows and to make with sharp-edged stones fishing boats or clumsy musical instruments; in a word, so long as they undertook only what a single person could accomplish, and confined themselves to such arts as did not require the joint labour of several hands, they lived free, healthy, honest and happy lives, so long as their nature allowed, and as they continued to enjoy the pleasures of mutual and independent intercourse. But from the moment one man began to stand in need of the help of another; from the moment it appeared advantageous to any one man to have enough provisions for two, equality disappeared, property was introduced, work became indispensable, and vast forests became smiling fields, which man had to water with the sweat of his brow, and where slavery and misery were soon seen to germinate and grow up with the crops. (Rousseau, Second Discourse, Part II, [19])

I could explain how much this universal desire for reputation, honours and advancement, which inflames us all, exercises and holds up to comparison our faculties and powers; how it excites and multiplies our passions, and, by creating universal competition and rivalry, or rather enmity, among men, occasions numberless failures, successes and disturbances of all kinds by making so many aspirants run the same course. I could show that it is to this desire of being talked about, and this unremitting rage of distinguishing ourselves, that we owe the best and the worst things we possess, both our virtues and our vices, our science and our errors, our conquerors and our philosophers; that is to say, a great many bad things, and a very few good ones. In a word, I could prove that, if we have a few rich and powerful men on the pinnacle of fortune and grandeur, while the crowd grovels in want and obscurity, it is because the former prize what they enjoy only in so far as others are destitute of it; and because, without changing their condition, they would cease to be happy the moment the people ceased to be wretched. (Rousseau, Second Discourse, Part II, [52])

In reality, the source of all these differences is, that the savage lives within himself, while social man lives constantly outside himself, and only knows how to live in the opinion of others, so that he seems to receive the consciousness of his own existence merely from the judgment of others concerning him. It is not to my present purpose to insist on the indifference to good and evil which arises from this disposition, in spite of our many fine works on morality, or to show how, everything being reduced to appearances, there is but art and mummery in even honour, friendship, virtue, and often vice itself, of which we at length learn the secret of boasting; to show, in short, how, always asking others what we are, and never daring to ask ourselves, in the midst of so much philosophy, humanity and civilisation, and of such sublime codes of morality, we have nothing to show for ourselves but a frivolous and deceitful appearance, honour without virtue, reason without wisdom, and pleasure without happiness. It is sufficient that I have proved that this is not by any means the original state of man, but that it is merely the spirit of society, and the inequality which society produces, that thus transform and alter all our natural inclinations. (Rousseau, Second Discourse, Part II, [57])

Pure state of nature (solitary being -> households) Nascent Society (savage society -> introduction of agriculture) Most Horrible State of War The Rich’s Offer of Contract Various Kinds of Problematic Governments The Social Contract 理想的共和國

Rousseau’s Social Contract “The problem is to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before.” This is the fundamental problem of which the Social Contract provides the solution. (Social Contract, Chapter 6, [4])

Rousseau’s Social Contract Nature(natural State, natural right, natural law)可以給我們的公民社會指多少指引？ 嚴格來說，自然無法給予任何指引。 因為自然狀態中的人的天真和自由狀態一去不復返，我們不可能回復成自然狀態的人。 我們只知道一切的惡來自於社會依賴和armour propre追逐的不平等。 至少我們可以盡量節制這些「社會依賴」產生的惡，讓我們在一個新的意義上，獲得新的一種獨立和自由

Rousseau’s Social Contract 契約內容 "Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole."

Rousseau’s Social Contract 1

Rousseau’s Social Contract 2 Rousseau’s Social Contract 2.獲得新的自由 （1）不依賴任何「具體的人或團體」，不依賴於他們恣意意志的自由。 只有當每個人都把全部聰明才智和財富、權力、地位交付給整個社群，你服從法律，才不會服從於任何特殊的個人和團體的恣意意志（老闆、富人、權貴、政商集團）等等。 由每個平等的人共同決定什麼社會依賴和社會不平等，是大家可以共同接受的，由你和平等的其他人共同決定。你不再依賴於任何其他個人。amour propre驅使的對社會不平等的追求，也因此被相當程度節制。 你服從這樣的法律，等於是不依賴任何人，只服從你自己。

(2)civil freedom: 只要不影響公共利益，個人就是完全自由的，他的自由被國家保護。財產、人身自由等等。 (3)moral freedom 所謂的道德自由。如果你任憑你內心任意出現的私人欲望行事，只是欲望的奴隸。必須服從你給自己訂立的法律，才是(道德)自由。 當你的私人欲望和法律起衝突時，法律強迫你遵循法律，是強迫你獲得自由。 “he shall be forced to be free”

普遍意志(General Will)怎麼決定？ 1. 公民大會審議和決議 2 普遍意志(General Will)怎麼決定？ 1.公民大會審議和決議 2.「普遍意志」不是「個別意志的加減總和」 。 「個別意志的加減總和」關注的還是個別的私人利益。但是「普遍意志」關注是真正的共同利益(common interest)。 3.普遍意志的審議產出方式： 當公民有適當的資訊，私下沒有策略性地結黨成派，審議結果的產出，會來自於數目龐大的小差異。這就會符合共同利益。(避免結黨成派)

(Social Contract, Book II, Chap 3, [2]) 普遍意志的審議產出方式 "Every interest," says the Marquis d'Argenson, "has different principles. The agreement of two particular interests is formed by opposition to a third." He might have added that the agreement of all interests is formed by opposition to that of each. (Social Contract, Book II, Chap 3, [2])

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 1-20 本作品轉載自http://www.templateswise.com/ 設計範本，造訪日期：2016年09月13日 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 2 在理性和社會性……需要做惡劣的事 文字提供：國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘 3 Two kinds of Self-love……活在他人眼光中的自愛 4 人們互相比較和競爭……方便移轉 5 So long as men remained content with ……. to germinate and grow up with the crops J. J. Rousseau, “Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men”(or “Second Discourse”) in The Discourses and Other Early Political Writings, ed. and trans. Victor GourevitchPart II, [19] (Cambridge University Press, 1997)

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 6 I could explain how much ……the moment the people ceased to be wretched. J. J. Rousseau, “Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men”(or “Second Discourse”) in The Discourses and Other Early Political Writings, ed. and trans. Victor GourevitchPart II, [52] (Cambridge University Press, 1997) 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 7 In reality, the source of all these ……transform and alter all our natural inclinations. J. J. Rousseau, “Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men”(or “Second Discourse”) in The Discourses and Other Early Political Writings, ed. and trans. Victor GourevitchPart II, [57] 8 Pure state of nature……理想的共和國 文字提供：國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 9 The problem is to find ……and remain as free as before J. J. Rousseau, “Of Social Contract” in The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings, Victor Gourevitch (Cambridge University Press, 1997) Chapter 6, [4]) 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 10 Nature……獲得新的一種獨立和自由 文字提供：國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘 11 Each of us puts ……indivisible part of the whole. J. J. Rousseau, “Of Social Contract” in The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings, Victor Gourevitch (Cambridge University Press, 1997) 12 普遍意志或者……權力地位較高的人。

版權聲明 頁碼 作品 版權標示 作者/來源 13 獲得新的自由……只服從你自己。 文字提供：國立臺灣大學 陳嘉銘 14 2)civil freedom: 只要不影響公共利益……強迫你獲得自由。 he shall ……to be free J. J. Rousseau, “Of Social Contract” in The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings, Victor Gourevitch (Cambridge University Press, 1997) 依據著作權法第 46、52、65 條合理使用 15 1.公民大會審議和決議……(避免結黨成派) 16 Every interest……opposition to that of each J. J. Rousseau, “Of Social Contract” in The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings, Victor Gourevitch (Cambridge University Press, 1997) Book II, Chap 3, [2])