Literary Translation.

Literary Translation

I. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation
Traditional approaches 1）translation as an activity concerning only interlingual transfer 2）only three requirements for translators to perform their job successfully: a) familiarity with the source language, b) familiarity with the target language, and c) familiarity with the subject matter

Aesthetic approach The process of literary translation is aesthetic progression between two different languages and cultures achieved through the translator’s actualization of the original image.

Two reasons for using progression instead of process A literary text characterized by poetic use of language – language inherently capable of multiple interpretations – cannot be assigned a single “correct” translation 2) “Form is not a property of a finished product; it never achieves a state of fixity but exists as continuously changing processes” The act of image-actualization is a cumulative process

1. Aesthetic Progression and Image-Actualization The aesthetic qualities are not given as ready-made, but need to be actualized in the interaction with the translator.

Example In her eagerness she rose and supported herself on the arm of the chair. At that earnest appeal he turned to her, looking absolutely desperate. His eyes, wide and wet, at last flashed fiercely on her; his breast heaved convulsively. An instant they held asunder, and then how they met I hardly saw, but Catherine made a spring, and he caught her, and they were locked in an embrace from which I thought my mistress would never be released alive: in fact, to my eyes, she seemed directly insensible. He flung himself into the nearest seat, and on my approaching hurriedly to ascertain if she had fainted, he gnashed at me, and foamed like a mad dog, and gathered her to him with greedy jealousy. I did not feel as if I were in the company of a creature of my own species: it appeared that he would not understand, though I spoke to him; so I stood off, and held my tongue, in great perplexity. (Emily Bronte: Wuthering Heights, Chapter XV)

她异常激动地站起身来，身子靠着椅子的扶手。听了那真挚的乞求，他转身向她，神色是完全不顾一切了。他睁大着双眼，含着泪水，终于猛地向她一闪，胸口激动地起伏着。他们各自站住一刹那，然后我简直没看清他们是怎么合在一起的，只见凯瑟琳向前一跃，他就把她擒住了，他们拥抱得紧紧的，我想我的女主人绝不会被活着放开了：事实上，据我看，她仿佛立刻就不省人事了。他投身到最近处的椅子上，我赶忙走上前看看她是不是昏迷了，他就对我咬牙切齿，像个疯狗似的吐着白沫，带着贪婪的嫉妒神色把她抱紧。我简直不觉得我是在陪着一个跟我同类的动物：看来即使我跟他说话，他也不会懂；因此我只好非常惶惑地站开，也不吭声。

2. An Image-based literary translation model Phase I: to translate the written text into a mental image-G (the mental manifestation of an imaginary gestalt完全形态); Phase II: to find goal-language exponents（代表者，解释者）of the overall mental representation obtained in Phase I.

3. Case Studies Images as the essential components of the literary language can be roughly classified into five types: 1) micro images (a. metaphor; b. symbol); 2) macro images (c. scenes; d. characters; e. events)

Examples (1)first, she would be “prideful”, as Gerald had commanded. From the moment she arrived at Twelve Oaks, she would be her gayest, most spirited self. No one would suspect that she had ever been downhearted because of Ashley and Melanie. And she would flirt with every man there. That would be cruel to Ashley, but it would make him yearn for her all the more. She wouldn’t overlook a man of marriageable age, from ginger-whiskered old Frank Kennedy, who was Suellen’s beau, on down to shy, quiet, blushing Charles Hamilton, Melanie’s brother. They would swarm around her like bees around a hive, and certainly Ashley would be drawn from Melanie to join the circle of her admirers. Then somehow she would maneuver to get a few minutes alone with him, away from the crowd. She hoped everything would work out that way, because it would be more difficult otherwise. But if Ashley didn’t make the first move, she would simply have to do it herself. (Margaret Mitchell: Gone with the Wind)

第一，她要装出一副“傲慢”的神气，这是她父亲吩咐过她的。她从到达十二根橡树的一刻儿起，就一直要装得十分倜傥，十分兴头。这样，人家才不会疑心她因希礼和媚兰的事曾经感觉过灰心。她在那边，对于那边的男人，一个个都要卖弄一番。这会使得希礼见了要十分难受，要越发舍不得自己。凡在结婚年龄的男子，她要一个个都跟他敷衍，老到如苏伦的情人，那个黄胡子的甘扶澜，小到如媚兰的弟弟，那个一下就会脸红的韩察理，她都要一网打尽他们，一个不让他漏网。那一些人一定会同蜜蜂围绕蜂房一般地向她围拢来，因而希礼也会丢开媚兰来加入他们的团体。然后她就要运用一点儿战略，使得希礼将她带开去，和她单独谈几分钟话。她想着这一着一定会万无一失，若使不然，事情就比较棘手了。但是万一希礼那边果真不肯先发动，那么，由她自己这边首先发动也无不可的。（傅东华译《飘》）

(2)（阿Q）可是永远记得那狼眼睛，又凶又怯，闪闪的像两颗鬼火，似乎远远的来穿透了他的皮肉。而这回他又看见从来没有见过的更可怕的眼睛了，又钝又锋利，不但已经咀嚼了他的话，并且还要咀嚼他皮肉以外的东西，永是不近不远的跟他走。（鲁迅《阿Q正传》）

He had never forgotten that wolf’s eyes, fierce yet cowardly, gleaming like two will-o’-the wisps, as if boring into him from a distance. Now he saw eyes more terrible even than the wolf's: dull yet penetrating eyes that, having devoured his words, still seemed eager to devour something beyond his flesh and blood. And these eyes kept following him at a set distance. Thus, forever would he remember the eyes of that wolf: cruel and savage they were, scintillating like two balls of spirit fire, seeming to come as they did from a distance, piercing his very flesh. On this occasion, likewise, he beheld frightful eyes such as he had never seen before, blunt and cuttingly sharp they were, they had not only chewed his words, but were bent on chewing things beyond his flesh. Those eyes kept following at a distance, never coming near nor withdrawing.

II. Style Case Study: 1) 月黑雁飞高，单于夜遁逃。欲将轻骑逐，大雪满弓刀。
High in the faint night, wild geese are soaring. Tartar chieftains are fleeing through the dark – And we chase them, with horses lightly burdened And a burden of snow on our bows and our swords 2) 朝辞爷娘去 ——《木兰辞》 And before the sun began his journey steep, She kissed her parents in their troubled sleep, Caressing them with fingers soft and light, She quietly passed from their conscious sight, And mounting horse she with her comrade rode.

II. Style 1. Definition of style
Style: the way language is used by a given person, for a given purpose, in a given context. In a broad sense, style is the “specific or characteristic manner of expression, execution, construction, or design in any art, period, work, employment, etc. When applied to literature, style suggests the result of a successful blending of form with content. Here form refers to the language a writer uses, and content the theme or ideology of the writer or his/her work.

II. Style Three grades/domains of style in translation concerning language: 1)levels of speech: such as formal or informal, familiar or polite, spoken or written（语体） 2)literary forms: such as poetry, drama and novel（文体） 3)manner of expression, characteristic of a particular writer, or the way in which language is used in a particular school or period（风格） Style in the last sense can be viewed as literary style, which is the essential characteristics of every piece of writing, the outcome of the writer’s personality and his/her emotions at the moment.

II. Style 2. Stylistic Markers 2.1 Formal markers
1) Phonological markers 2) Register marker (what is register?) 3) Lexical markers 4) Syntactic markers 5) Textual markers 6) Markers of figures of speech（修辞格） e.g. Charles Dickens: irony and exaggeration

II. Style 2.2 Non-Formal Markers 1) Ways of expression
e.g. symbolic undertones象征性潜隐叙事法 Case study: Near the curb of the crowded sidewalk, pigeons were tossing around a bread crust that someone had dropped or thrown them. They couldn’t cope with it or let it be. These creatures filled me with both compassion for them and rage against their Creator. Where did they spend the nights in this severe weather? They must be cold and hungry. They might die this very night.

II. Style 2) Subject matter
e.g. Hemingway’s subject matter is always about death, violence, danger and the like. His preoccupation with individual courage, will and power is unique and characteristic of Hemingway style. 3) Ideological Contents

II. Style 3. The difficulty in reproducing the original style
Owing to the different natures of language which may differ in word formation, syntactic structure, figure of speech, etc., there exist some linguistic difficulties in stylistic transference

II. Style For example: 1)冻雨洒窗，东两点，西三点；切瓜分片，横七刀，竖八刀。 2)此木为柴山山出，
因火成烟夕夕多。(phanopoeia形文) 3)She sells seashells on the seashore, The shells she sells are seashells. (a tongue twister – melopoeia声文) 4)-- What’s the relation between the door-mat and the door? -- A step farther (stepfather). 5)-- “Call me a taxi,” said the fat man. -- “Okay,” said the doorman. “You’re a taxi, but you look more like a truck to me.” 6)-- “Why is a room full of married people very empty?” -- “Because there isn’t a single person in it.” (logopoeia情文) 7)人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛；女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴。(pun) A Buddhist cannot bud in a Buddha; A maiden may be made a housemaid. The man who has been a monk cannot be a Buddha; The girl who is a bond may also be called a slave. 8)客上天然居，居然天上客。(Palindrome)

II. Style 4. How to render the original style
Three arguments against the translatability of style: 1)Different languages can’t express the same style; 2)Translators have their own styles; 3)There are no objective criteria for the judgment of what kind of translation is good and what kind is bad.

II. Style To reproduce the original style satisfactorily, the translator must have both the macroscopic (literary ) point of view and the microscopic (linguistic) point of view. The former deals with the thought, feeling and style of the original, and the latter deals with the words, sentences and paragraphs of it.

II. Style Two feasible techniques to represent the original style in translation, namely, corresponding (imitation) and recasting. Recasting is usually applied when there is (a) a lack of corresponding stylistic markers in the target and (b) the discrepancy in ways of thinking and expressing which result from linguistic and cultural differences. It involves (a) rearrangement of word order, (b) conversion of parts of speech, and (c) proper addition and deletion

II. Style Examples (1)First Gentleman: Thou art always figuring diseases in me, but thou art full of error; I am sound. Lucio: Nay, not as one would say, healthy; but so sound as things that are hollow; impiety has made feast of thee. (Shakespeare: Measure for Measure) 绅士甲：你总以为我有哪种病，其实你大错特错，我的身体响当当的。路奇欧：响当当的，可并不结实，就象空心的东西那样响当当的；你的骨头都空了，好色的毛病把你掏空了。 (2)空山不见人，但闻人语响。返景入深林，复照青苔上。（王维《鹿柴》） An empty hill, and no one insight, But I hear the echo of voices. The slanting sun at evening penetrates the deep wood, And shines reflected on the blue lichens.

II. Style (3) On one of those sober and rather melancholy days in the latter part of autumn, when the shadows of morning and evening almost mingle together, and throw a gloom over the decline of the year, I passed several hours in rambling about Westminster Abbey. There was something congenial to the season in the mournful magnificence of the old pile; and, as I passed its threshold, it seemed like stepping back into the regions of antiquity, and losing myself among the shades of former ages. (Washington Irving: Westminster Abbey)

III. Cultural Elements in Literary Translation
The relationship between language and culture 1. What is culture? Culture refers to the total way of life of a people. Literary translation is in nature an intercultural activity in its work of comparing, introducing and absorbing.

2. Cultural Universals There are a number of cultural universals in Chinese and English respective vocabularies. For example, “heaven” or 天 1)Heaven has eyes (there is divine justice after all). 老天有眼。 2)Heaven’s vengeance is slow but sure. 天网恢恢，疏而不漏。 3)Heaven/ God helps those who help themselves. 老天不负苦心人/ 自助者，天助之。 4)The people of the two cultures may also have some similar experience, observation or philosophical views on human life and the objective world. For example: 5)赤条条来去无牵挂（《红楼梦》第二十二回） 6)For we brought nothing into this world, and it is certain we can carry nothing out. (New Testament of The Bible) 7)Unity is strength. 人多力量大。 8)As a man sows, so he shall reap. 种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。 9)Blood is thicker than water. 血浓于水。 10)Knowledge is power. 知识就是力量。 11)as light as a feather 轻如鸿毛 12)as cowardly as a rat 胆小如鼠 13)as proud as a peacock 象孔雀一样骄傲

3. Cultural Disparities 3.1 Disparities in historical culture Allusions（典故） Examples: 四面楚歌/ 破釜沉舟/ 卧薪尝胆/ 负荆请罪/ 毛遂自荐/ 身在曹营心在汉/ 刘姥姥进大观园/ 叶公好龙牛郎织女/ 八仙过海，各显神通/ 狗咬吕洞宾/ 当一天和尚撞一天钟/ 道高一尺，魔高一丈 (Where God has his church, the devil will have his chapel.) / 临时抱佛脚 The Trojan horse, Prometheus (Greek methology) eat the leek (King Henry V, 5:1) 被迫收回说过的话 cat with nine lives (Romeo and Juliet, 3:1) care killed the cat (Much Ado About Nothing, 5:1) better a witty fool than a foolish wit (Twelfth Night, 1:5) 聪明的傻子胜过愚蠢的才子/ 宁为大智若愚，勿为大愚若智

Common source of English allusions: names from the Bible or the English and American literary works, important events in history e.g. Judas / Solemn / “like Moses leading his people / Romeo / Frankenstein / Sherlock Holmes / Uncle Tom / catch-22 situation; to pull a Pearl harbor on somebody; He made a blitz(a surprise attack or lightening rapidity, as Hitler called his tactics when his army invaded Poland in 1939 ) tour of Asia; a Dunkirk for foreign policy (a terrible situation)

3.2Disparities in geographical culture The English language contains many expressions that refer to the sea and ships. For instance: to keep one’s head above water; to sail under false color; between the devil and the deep blue sea The difference between Chinese 东风 and English “east wind” . For the Chinese, 东风is a symbol of spring and warmth; yet to people of England, just the opposite is true.

3.3 Disparities in traditional modes of thinking A speech community’s peculiar cultural origin is pregnant with peculiar psychology, folkways and character traits. The color terminology is an example in point. e.g. white white in a westerner’s eyes suggests purity and innocence and is the traditional color for brides. In China, however, people usually have white at funerals and the color has long been regarded as a symbol of solitude, poverty and decline. ◎ 雨中黄叶树，灯下白头人。 ◎ 昨日黄土垄头埋白骨，今宵红灯帐底卧鸳鸯/ 白骨露于野，千里无鸡鸣 ◎ 去时里正与裹头，归来头白还戍边（杜甫《兵车行》） ◎ 日暮苍山远，天寒白屋贫（刘长卿《逢雪宿芙蓉山主人》）

Red The color red often carries a derogatory sense such as violence, bloodshed, danger, etc. in the western culture. But in traditional Chinese culture it suggests such notions as happiness, abundance, propitiousness, etc. and is usually associated with joyful occasions. 红双喜;开门红

Dog In China, dogs are first of all watchdogs, not pets. They are considered to be tolerated but not loved. In English, dog is generally regarded as man’s best friend with many merits. 狗腿子，狗胆包天，狗急跳墙，狗仗人势，狗眼看人低，狗嘴吐不出象牙 Love me, love my dog / top dog / lucky dog / to help a lame dog over a stile / Every dog has his day 挂羊头，卖狗肉：cry up wine and sell vinegar / sell horse-meat as beefsteak (cf. hang up a sheep’s head and sell dog-meat)

4. How to Render Cultural Elements in Translation Most culture-specific words are easy to detect, since they are associated with a particular language and cannot be literally translated, but many cultural customs are described in ordinary language, where literal customs are described in ordinary language, where literal translation would distort the meaning and a translation may include an appropriate descriptive-functional equivalent. (Newmark, 1988)

4.1 Basic translating methods (1) Literal Translation ◎ This small country has long been regarded as a Trojan Horse in southeast Asia by its master. 很久以来，人们一直把这歌小国家看作其主子安置在东南亚的一具特洛伊木马。 ◎ To say the truth, so Judas kissed his master. And cried, “all hail!” whenas he meant all harm. 说老实话，我这一吻，好比犹大吻耶稣，口里喊“祝福”，心里说“叫你遭殃”。 ◎ If you run after two hares, you will catch neither. 同时追两兔，谁都抓不住。 ◎ Better to reign in hell, than serve in heaven. 宁愿在地狱里为王，也不肯在天堂里称臣。(Milton: Paradise Lost)

If the last two sentences are translated into “一心不可耳用” and “宁为鸡口，勿为牛后”, much of the former vividness and the latter religious distinctiveness will be lost. In fact, a language has the ability to accept and absorb different cultural elements of foreign origin. For example, to lose one’s face / save one’s face (Chinese origin) love me, love my dog (French origin)

In many cases, however, matching words does not mean matching cultures. For example, the following English and Chinese expressions do not match each other, although they bear a great resemblance in their words. ◎ child’s play ≠儿戏 ◎ to eat one’s (own) words ≠食言 ◎ out of sight, out of mind ≠眼不见，心不烦 ◎ Beggars are not choosers. ≠饥不择食（无权选择） ◎ Once bitten, twice shy. ≠一朝被蛇咬，十年怕井绳（吃一堑，长一智）

(2) Annotation Transliteration + a generic/explanatory word Aids, hamburger 太极拳 — taijiquan (a kind of traditional Chinese shadow boxing) Literal translation + footnote/endnote

(3) Contextual amplification ◎ It was Friday and soon they would go out and get drunk. 星期五发薪日到了，他们马上就要上街去喝个酩酊大醉。 ◎“三个臭皮匠，合成一个诸葛亮。”这就是说，群众有伟大的创造力。 “Three cobblers with their wits combined equal Chuke Liang the mastermind.” In other words, the masses have great creative power. ◎一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃 A Chinese saying about monks fetching water: One monk, two buckets; two monks, one bucket; three monks, no bucket, no water – more hands, less work done.

(4) Paraphrase ◎ It’s not easy to become a member of that club – they want people who have plenty of money to spend, not just every Tom, Dick and Harry. 要加入那家俱乐部可不容易——他们要的是有钱的阔佬，不是一般老百姓。 ◎ He’s all thumbs, not fit for the job. 他笨手笨脚的，干不了这活。

(5) Shift of Perspective ◎ 狗不理— Dog Won’t Leave ◎ 他们是连襟— Their wives are sisters. ◎ sister-in-law— 孩子他姑 ◎ 况且这通身的气派竟不像老祖宗的外孙女儿，竟是嫡亲的孙女儿似的…… And everything about her so distinguished! She doesn’t take after your side of the family, Grannie, she is more like a Jia. (David Hawkes) (cf) Her whole air is so distinguished! She doesn’t take after her father, son-in-law of our old ancestress, but looks more like a Chia.

(6) Adaptation ◎ －We might have fine weather for our holiday. － Yes, and pigs might fly! －这次度假可能会碰上好天气。－是呀，太阳还会从西边出来呢！ ◎ －Jack has been sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. －Give a dog a bad name. －杰克被判处三年徒刑。－欲加之罪，何患无辞呢。

IV. Alienation and Naturalization
1. Translating practice Pride and Prejudice (An Excerpt from Chapter One) It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife. However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighborhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered as the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters. "My dear Mr. Bennet," said his lady to him one day, "have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?" Mr. Bennet replied that he had not. "But it is," returned she; "for Mrs. Long has just been here, and she told me all about it." Mr. Bennet made no answer. "Do not you want to know who has taken it?" cried his wife impatiently. "You want to tell me, and I have no objection to hearing it." This was invitation enough.

“Why, my dear, you must know, Mrs. Long says that Netherfield is taken by a young man of large fortune from the north of England; that he came down on Monday in a chaise and four to see the place, and was so much delighted with it that he agreed with Mr. Morris immediately; that he is to take possession before Michaelmas, and some of his servants are to be in the house by the end of next week.” "What is his name?" "Bingley." "Is he married or single?" "Oh! Single, my dear, to be sure! A single man of large fortune; four or five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls!" "How so? How can it affect them?" "My dear Mr. Bennet," replied his wife, "How can you be so tiresome! You must know that I am thinking of his marrying one of them." "Is that his design in settling here?" “Design! Nonsense, how can you talk so! But it is very likely that he may fall in love with one of them, and therefore you must visit him as soon as he comes.” “I see no occasion for that. You and the girls may go, or you may send them by themselves, which perhaps will be still better; for, as you are as handsome as any of them, Mr. Bingley might like you the best of the party.”

2. Dispute between the two strategies The dispute on alienation and naturalization goes hand in hand with the following seemingly contradictory alternative demands made of translation which seem almost impossible to reconcile: A translation must give the words of the original; A translation must give the ideas of the original; A translation should read like an original work; A translation should read like a translation; A translation should reflect the style of the original; A translation should possess the style of the translation; A translation should read as a contemporary of the original; A translation should read as a contemporary of the translation; A translation may add to or omit from the original; A translation may never add to or omit from the original; A translation of verse should be in prose; A translation of verse should be in verse.

In practice of translation, both strategies may be justified in their own right when taking into account the following four facts: (1) the type of texts; (2) the significance of cultural flavor in the source text; (3) the purpose of translation; (4) the readership.

3. The Type of Text The three main functions of language are the expressive, the informative, and the vocative (appeal) functions.

3.1 Expressive function 1) Core: the mind of the speaker 2) text-types: serious imaginative literature; authoritative statements; autobiography, essays, personal correspondence.

3.2 Informative function 1) Core: external situation 2) Text types: textbook; technical report; article in a newspaper or a periodical; a scientific paper; a thesis; minutes or agenda of a meeting.

3.3 Vocative function 1) Core: the readership 2) Text types: notices; instructions; publicity; propaganda; pervasive writing (requests, cases, theses)

Newmark refers to expressive as sacred texts; informative and vocative as “anonymous”, since the status of their authors is not important. Thus he thinks that “…cultural components tend to be transferred intact in expressive texts; transferred and explained with culturally neutral terms in informative texts; replaced by cultural equivalents in vocative texts.”

For example ◎“又要马儿跑，又要马儿不吃草” “you want the horse to run fast and you don’t let it graze” ◎济公劫富济贫 Jigong, Robin Hood in China, robbed the rich and helped the poor.

4. The Significance of Cultural Flavor in the Source Text “The most serious problems involved in transfer derive from the fact that the same objects or events may have quite different symbolic values… Culturally strange objects must be retained because of their symbolic values.” (Nida)

If a cultural object in the ST carries little symbolic value other than some necessary information, we can adopt the method of naturalization if it blocks a target reader’s comprehension. For example: 这位小姐，德性温良，才貌出众，鲁老先生和夫人因无子息，爱如掌上明珠。 I know the young lady, and she is virtuous, gentle and beautiful. Because Mr. and Mrs. Lu have no son, the girl is the apple of their eye.

5. The Purpose of Translation It is the intended purpose of translation in the context of the target situation that determines the practical transfer methods. In a word, “the end justifies the means.”

6. The Readership Different readers usually require different kinds of translation. The translator should try to assess the level of education, the class, age and sex of the readership.

V. Translationese 1. Word meaning and Translationese
Translationese often occurs when a translator fails to understand the contextual meaning of the original words or simply clings to the ready-given meaning in a dictionary.

V. Translationese ◎ This is the official kind of strike. 这是官方的罢工。/ 这是工会组织的罢工。 ◎ They took a final look at Iron Mike, still intact in the darkness. 他们最后看了铁迈克一眼——它依旧安然无恙地耸立再黑暗中。/ 最后他们看了看迈克的铁像——它仍然完好无缺地耸立在黑暗中。 ◎ Our son must go to school. He must break out the pot that holds us in. 我们的儿子一定得进学校。他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。/ 我们的儿子一定得上学，一定得出人头地。 ◎ Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of black fear about them. 他们的腿微微痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样。他们随身携带着黑色的恐怖的柱子。/ 他们每向前迈一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一般。他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。 ◎ Nowadays, however, the crystal-ball promises of world peace are not so clear. 然而现在，像水晶球一样透亮的世界和平前景却并不那么光明了。/ 然而，原本预见到的世界和平的前景现在却并不那么清晰了。

V. Translationese ◎ When I told him what I had just done and why, his weathered face slowly changed. 我把刚才做的事告诉他并解释原因，他那饱经风霜的脸可慢慢地变了。/ 我把刚才做的事告诉他并解释了原因，他饱经风霜的脸慢慢地变了脸色。 ◎ A personnel deficit has existed for years in the company. 公司里的人员赤字已经存在了好多年了。/ 公司里人手不足的情况已经存在好多年了。 ◎ For many families, especially in Singapore, two incomes are a necessity. 对许多家庭来说，两份收入是一种需要，尤其是在新加坡。/ 对许多家庭来说，夫妇两人都出外工作挣钱是迫不得已的事，在新加坡尤其如此。 ◎ Doctors had recommended that babies be laid down to sleep on their stomachs for fear they might choke if they vomited in their sleep. 医生过去曾建议让婴儿睡在他们的腹上，以防他们睡着呕吐是可能被噎住。/ 医生过去曾建议让婴儿趴着睡，以防他们睡着时呕吐可能被噎住。 ◎ I believed then that I would die here, and I saw with a terrible clarity the things of the valley below. 这时我觉得我要死在那儿了，而且清晰得可怕地看见了下面山谷里的景物。/ 谷底的一切都尽在眼底，清晰得可怕，我觉得我要死在这儿了。

V. Translationese 2. Sentence structure and Translationese
◎ Indeed, he was one in whom the ancient Roman honor more appeared than in any that drew breath in Italy. 他身上体现的古罗马道德确实比当时的意大利活着的人所体现的都多。/ 他确实是意大利当时最具有古罗马君子之风的人物。 ◎ Their strength lay only in the lack of consciousness on the part of the people. 他们的力量就在于人民缺乏觉悟。/ 他们之所以显得强大，只是因为人民还没有觉悟起来。 ◎ The air seemed almost sticky from the scent of bursting buds. 空气由于刚开的花蕾发出的香味似乎变得几乎是粘乎乎的了。/ 花蕾初绽，散发出馥郁的芳香，连空气都似乎变得粘稠起来。 ◎ There were many forces at work which made virtually inevitable the discovery of America at about the time Columbus accomplished it. 有许多使美洲的发现成为实际上不可避免的事的力量已经在哥伦布完成这一发现时期前后起着作用。/ 美洲的发现实际上是势所必然的，因为在哥伦布完成这一使命的前后时期，就已经有许多重要因素在起作用。

V. Translationese ◎ The thought that she would be separated from her husband during his long and dangerous journey saddened Mrs. Brown. 在她丈夫那漫长而危险的旅途时间内她将和他分离的这个思想使布朗太太悲伤。/ 布朗太太一想到丈夫踏上那漫长而危险的旅途，而此间她又不能跟他在一起，心里就禁不住难过起来。 ◎“Will you take advantage of a man’s nature to do him out of the price of his own daughter what has brought up and fed and clothed by the sweat of his brow until she’s grown big enough to be interesting to you two gentlemen?” “你们总不至于乘人的好脾气来骗我从小给她吃穿养大到使你们以为有意思的女儿的身价吧？” /“您两位不至于因为我这人脾气好就想骗我，趁机贬低我女儿的身价吧？她现在倒是长大成人了，您两位对她也感兴趣；可是，我当初为了把她拉扯大，给她吃，给她穿，不晓得流了多少血汗啊！”

Chinglish Causes of Chinglish 1. Mother-tongue Interference
2. Linguistic Incompetence

Chinglish 1. Mother-tongue Interference
Chinglish phrases: ◎早恋 early love (cf. puppy love) ◎长镜头 long lens (cf. zoom lens) ◎方便面 convenient noodles (cf. instant noodles) ◎隐形眼镜 invisible glasses (cf. contact lenses) ◎不冻港 non-freezing port (cf. ice-free port) ◎课堂测验 classroom exam (cf. pop-quiz) ◎流动资金 circulating funds (cf. working captital) ◎新闻自由 freedom of news (cf. freedom of press)

Chinglish Chinglish sentence ◎上海的交通很拥挤。
*Shanghai’s traffic is very crowded. The traffic is very heavy in Shanghai. ◎这种论点目前还有一定的市场 *This argument has certain market at present. This argument has some appeal at present. ◎我想他不会成功。 *I think he will not success. I don’t think he will success.

Chinglish 2. Linguistic Incompetence Unnecessary words
Which words are unnecessary in the following phrases or sentences? We must oppose the practice of extravagance. To accelerate the pace of economic reform There have been good harvests in agriculture. Living standards for the people in both urban and rural areas continued to rise. At that time the situation in northeast China was still one where the enemy was stronger than the people’s forces. We must make an improvement in our work. To give the guidance to A true fact That theory too is a valuable ideological treasure of the Party. Imports of foreign automobiles have declined sharply this year.

Chinglish (2) Unnatural sentences
◎ She was so jealous that she became desperate. (cf. Jealousy drove her to despair.) ◎ As the price for the jacket was too expensive, I decided not to buy it. (cf. too high) ◎ I feel very painful in my right hand. (cf. I feel great pain in my right hand.) ◎ I’ll first send you home in my car. (cf. I’ll first take you home in my car.) ◎ The sight of these pictures made me remember my own childhood. ◎ A sudden shout made him stand up. (cf. A sudden shout brought him to feet.) ◎ Her red face made me see through her mind. (cf. Her red face told me what she was thinking about.) ◎ The bankruptcy of his father has made him impossible to go on studying. (cf. The bankruptcy of his father has made it impossible for him to go on studying.) ◎ I’d like to have the newest news on Afghanistan. ◎ His English knowledge is adequate for the job. (cf. His knowledge of English) ◎ He had so much money that he would not be able to spend it in his whole life. (cf. He had more money than he would possibly spend in his whole life.) ◎ He would not leave here even if there were a thunderstorm. (cf. It takes more than a thunderstorm to drive him away.)

Chinglish 3. Case Study “陆大夫，你怎么才来呀？”托儿所的阿姨抱怨地说。
她冲向隔离室，只见小佳佳一个人冷冷清清地躺在小床上。她的小脸蛋烧得红，小嘴唇儿张着，小鼻子吃力地扇动着，眼镜却闭得紧紧的。 “佳佳，妈妈来了！”陆文婷扑到小床栏杆上。佳佳的小脑袋在枕头上动了动。她沙哑地喊了一声： “妈——妈——，回家！” “回家，回家！”她急忙抱起小佳佳，转回本院儿科看急诊。 “肺炎。”儿科的大夫同情地说：“陆大夫，要好好护理几天啊！” 她点点头，给佳佳打了针，取了药，走出儿科急诊室。中午时，医院安静下来。门诊的病人走了，住院的病人睡了，医护人员也各自奔回家或者找地方休息去了。偌大的一个院子显得空落落的，只有一些不知疲倦的麻雀在梧桐树上叫着，逍遥自在地飞来飞去。原来，在这大楼林立、空气污染、充满噪音的市区，也还有大自然的造物在与人类争妍。陆文婷心中觉得奇怪，怎么天天在医院走来走去，竟没有发现这里还有鸟儿？

Chinglish (1) “Why did it take you so long?” the nurse complained.
Lu walked quickly to the isolation room where her little daughter lay, her face flushed with fever, her lips parted, her eyes closed, her breathing difficult. She bent over the crib. “Mummy’s here, darling.” Xiaojia moved and called in a hoarse voice, “Mummy, let’s go home.” “All right, my pet.” She first took Xiaojia to her own hospital to see a pediatrician. “It’s pneumonia,” the sympathetic doctor told her. “You must take good care of her.” She nodded and left after Xiaojia had been given an injection and some medicine. In the hospital everything stood still at noon, the out-patients having left, the in-patients sleeping and the hospital staff resting. The spacious grounds were deserted except for the chirping sparrows flying among the trees. Nature still competed with men in this noisy center of the city, where tall buildings rose compactly and the air was polluted. In the hospital all day, Lu had never been aware of the birds before.

Chinglish (2) “What took you so long, Dr. Lu?” complained the woman at the nursery. Wenting hurried into the nursery’s infirmary, and there saw little Jiajia, lying alone and cheerless on a small bed. Her cheeks were flushed with fever, her lips parted. Her nostrils fluttered with labored breathing, and her eyes were shut tightly. “Jiajia, Mommy is here,” Wenting bent over the bed. Jiajia’s little head moved on the pillow. She cried out hoarsely, “Mommy – I want to go home.” “Let’s go home, then.” She quickly took the child in her arms and headed back to the hospital’s emergency child care clinic. “Pneumonia,” the pediatrician said sympathetically. “She’ll need to be carefully nursed for a few days, Dr. Lu.” Wenting nodded her head, got Jiajia an injection, picked up her medicine, and left the clinic. It was noontime, and the hospital was quieting down. The clinic patients had left, and the inpatients were sleeping; the doctors, nurses, and staff had all gone home or found somewhere else for a nap. The big courtyard seemed empty and lonely. Only a few tireless sparrows kept chirping in the parasol tree, enjoying their freedom, flying to and fro. Had these creatures of Mother Nature always been here, gracing humanity with their presence amid the overgrowth of buildings, the air pollution, and the raucous noise of the city? Wenting was surprised to realize that she had been rushing around this hospital every day without ever noticing these birds.

VI. 小说的翻译（一）英语小说的文体特征 1）语言的形象性
与这一特点相伴的词语特征是（1）准确（2）多限定词、修饰词。如D·H·劳伦斯的The Odour of Chrysanthemums 的开头一句：The small locomotive engine, Number 4, came clanking, stumbling down from Selston with seven full wagons.(四号小火车的车头拖着七节装满货物的车厢，从赛尔斯顿方向跌跌撞撞地开了过来，一路上发出叮叮咣咣的声响。)

VI. 小说的翻译 2）人物语言的个性化 作家为了生动地再现形形色色的人物的个性，常常模仿他们各自的语言，使他们说出合乎自己身份、地位、教养、性格的话来。 “Hello, Jim, have I been asleep? Why didn‘t you stir me up?”“Goodness gracious, is dat you, Huck? En you ain’ dead-you ain‘ drownded-you’s back agin? It‘s too good for true, honey, it is too good for true. Lemme look at you, chile ,lemme feel o’you…” （马克· 吐温 The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn ）

VI. 小说的翻译 3）修辞格的广泛运用以拟人、比喻、讽刺、夸张、双关为多。
“The pitbank loomed up beyond the pond, flames like red sores licking its ashy sides, in the afternoon‘s stagnant light. ”（劳伦斯：《菊馨》）

VI. 小说的翻译 4）复杂多变的句式 长短句的结合，圆周句与松散句的迭用等等。 5）叙述时空的混乱
在一些现代派的作品中，意识流手法的采用，常常使得时空变化模糊不清。

VII. 英语小说的翻译翻译小说对译者的要求：翻译英语小说首先必须有着宽广的知识面，有着较为丰富的英语民族与国家的社会文化知识；
其次，译者必须具备一定的文学鉴赏力，在一定程度上，他应是一个文学批评家；再者，译者必须对译入语驾轻就熟，有较高的母语表达能力；同时，译者还应深入分析原作的语言风格；好的译者应在形象思维能力和想象能力最大限度地接近作家。

VII. 英语小说的翻译 "I hate the whole house," continued Miss Sharp in a fury."I hope I may never set eyes on it again. I wish it were in the bottom of the Thames, I do; and if Miss Pinkerton were there, I wouldn't pick her out, that I wouldn't. O how I should like to see her floating in the water yonder, turban and all, with her train streaming after her, and her nose like the beak of a wherry." 夏泼小姐狠狠地说道：“我恨透了这整个儿的学校。但愿我一辈子也别再看见它，我恨不得叫它沉到泰晤士河里去。倘若平克顿小姐掉在河里，我也不高兴捞她起来。我才不干呢!哈!我就爱看她在水里泡着，头上包着包头布，后面拖着个大裙子，鼻子像个小船似的浮在水面上。”（杨必所译萨克雷(W·M·Thackeray)的《名利场》中的一个片段）

VIII. 散文的翻译 (一) 散文语言的特点
广义的散文是相对于韵文而言的，指除去韵文以外的所有文体。狭义的散文指那些记事、记人、抒发情感、发表议论的文章。散文语言与小说中的叙事和议事语言十分相似，但更为清新自然、活泼灵秀、洗炼畅达，能带给人更多的美感。

VIII. 散文的翻译（二）散文的翻译 首先要准确把握原文的内容与风格另外要认真体会散文的时代风格与作家风格

VIII. 散文的翻译 Sleep is most graceful in an infant; soundest, in one who has been tired in the open air; completest, to the seaman after a hard voyage; most welcome, to the mind haunted with one idea; most touching to look at, in the parent that has wept; lightest, in the playful child; proudest, in the bride adored. 婴儿的睡眠，最为优美；疲劳的人在户外睡眠，最为酣畅；水手在艰苦航程之后的睡眠，最为圆满；为某种意念所苦的人，对睡眠最为欢迎；哭泣后的母亲的睡眠，最动人心弦；一个顽皮小孩的睡眠，最为轻松；一个深受爱慕的新娘的睡眠，最为骄傲。（刘炳善所译英国散文作家亨特(Leigh Hunt )的A Few Thoughts on Sleep的最后一段）

IX. 诗歌的翻译（一）英语诗歌的特点 1）语言的音韵美和节奏感押韵是语流中相同音素的重复和组合所造成的共鸣和呼应。
英诗常用的韵有①头韵(alliteration) ②谐元音/腹韵(assonance) ③尾韵(rhyme) 。有规律的轻重抑扬变化连同韵式的变化，一同构成了诗的节奏美。常见的有抑扬格五音步，扬抑格四音步，抑扬格七音步以及扬抑抑格两音步、抑抑扬格三音步等。

IX. 诗歌的翻译 2）破格与变异破格：诗人享有语言运用方面的一些特权(poetic license)，即为了适应节奏格律的需要，诗人可以使用一些特殊的缩略形式（如tis=it is, o‘er=over），以减少音节数；他还可以灵活调整词序、主谓倒置、动宾倒置及对修饰词与被修饰词进行换位，这些语言特权所带来的结果就是更具表现力的破格。变异：是对语言常规的有意偏离，是诗人寻新求异的一种手法，是对语言的创造性的使用，是无拘无束的自由，变异可以发生在诗歌语言的各个层面上，如语音、拼写、词汇、语法、诗式等。

IX. 诗歌的翻译 3）词句的重复与修辞格的广泛运用
诗歌中常重复一些词句或诗行，用以抒发真挚深沉的情感，或是用以渲染某种气氛（如回环往复的缠绵），或是用以增强诗的歌唱性。诗歌中又大量运用修辞格，尤是是各种各样的明喻、暗喻、比拟用得最多。

IX. 诗歌的翻译 4）丰富的意象与象征意象，是指那些可以引起人的感官反应的具体形象和画面，分为视觉、听觉、嗅觉、触觉、味觉、动觉、通联等。这些意象不仅唤起人们的某种体验，更常常具有鲜明或隐晦的象征意义，是许多优秀诗篇所具有的共性。

IX. 诗歌的翻译（二）诗歌的翻译 最难莫过于译诗 “诗不可译” 之说译文中追求形似是译者的重要任务之一
最难莫过于译诗 “诗不可译” 之说译文中追求形似是译者的重要任务之一英文格律诗汉译的方法：“以诗译诗”（王佐良）——原诗如果有韵，那么译诗也应尽量沿用，原诗如果无韵，译诗也应无韵，即使用韵，也不能太过整齐，只应是个别诗句中用韵；原诗的节奏应尽量用汉语的自然起落体现；形似应尽量在用韵与否以及诗行长短上予以体现。译者应在词语的锤炼上下苦功夫。

IX. 诗歌的翻译试比较下面一个英语诗节的汉译： The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea, The plowman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 译文一：暮钟鸣，昼已暝 牛羊相呼，迂回草径 农人荷锄归，蹒跚而行 把全盘世界剩给我与黄昏（郭沫若译）译文二：晚钟响起来一阵阵给白昼报丧， 牛群在草原上迂回，吼声起落。 耕地人累了，回家走脚步踉跄， 把整个世界给了黄昏与我。 （卞之琳译）译文三：晚钟殷殷响，夕阳已西沉， 群牛呼叫归，迂回走草径， 农人荷锄犁，倦倦回家门， 惟我立旷野，独自对黄昏。（丰华瞻译）

XI. 舞台剧及影视剧本的翻译（一）舞台剧及影视剧本的语言特点通篇都是用对话写成的，要诉诸声形的
剧本中的对话(对白)大致可分为三种类型：一种是经过作家精炼后的诗句；第二种是经过作家加工后的较为正规的、完整的语言，它来自生活，却又高于生活；再一种就是未经加工的生活语言照录，多停顿，多不完整句，多不合语法规范句，多重复。有多少种人就会有多少种语言。

XI. 舞台剧及影视剧本的翻译（二）剧本的翻译
就舞台剧剧本的翻译而言，其目的不外乎有两个：一是为该剧在另一个国度用另一种语言演出服务，二是译出来供人阅读。但不管是出于哪一种目的，译者都应考虑原文作为剧本的特点。如果戏剧翻译是为上述第一种目的，译者应尽量使用明白晓畅的文字来传达原文剧中人物的意趣，遇到习语典故，应尽量采用意译。如，莎士比亚的The Two Noble Kinsmen(《两个高贵的亲戚》)的第一幕第一场中Theseus(忒修斯)的一段话中有Not Juno‘s mantle fairer than your tresses之句，而其中的Juno是希腊神话中众神之主的Zeus的高傲的王后Hera的别称，这段话中还提到了Mars’s altar以及Hercules。较好的办法是将Juno译为“仙后”，将Mars译为“战神”，将Hercules译为“大力神”或“大力神赫拉克勒斯”。如果译文只是供人阅读的，那就可采用直译加注，如梁实秋先生译莎士比亚就是以直译为主，必要时加一些注解，"旨在引起读者对原文的兴趣"。

XI. 舞台剧及影视剧本的翻译影视脚本的翻译，主要是为影视配音。影视艺术的特点，决定了影视语言的大众性，翻译时应力避生涩艰深难懂之词，习语典故也应以意译为主。影视翻译受制于口形及时间。此外，译者必须关注屏幕人物的动作神情，了解人物性格特征，用性格化的语言反映人物的喜怒哀乐、粗俗高雅。

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Literary Translation.

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Presentation on theme: "Literary Translation."— Presentation transcript:

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