History of Modern American Science and Technology Session 5 Modern Environmental Movement

Rachel Carson, 1907-1964 Marine biologist (MS from Johns Hopkins) and nature writer Career in Fish and Wildlife Service, US federal government, 1936-1952 Wrote popular books on the ocean, most famously The Sea around US (1952) Wrote Silent Spring (1958-1962) which has been called one of the few books that changed world history; it started the modern environmental movement

Silent Spring (1962) Modern problem: “Only within the moment of time represented by the present century has one species—man—acquired significant power to alter the nature of his world.” Scale of the problem: “Along with the possibility of the extinction of mankind by nuclear war, the central problem of our age has therefore become the contamination of man’s total environment with such substances of incredible potentials for harm.”

Silent Spring (cont.) Danger unknown: “It is not my contention that chemical insecticides must never be used. I do contend that we have put poisonous and biologically potent chemicals indiscriminately into the hands of persons largely or wholly ignorant of their potentials for harm.” Public’s right to know: “The public must decide whether it wishes to continue on the present road, and it can do so only when in full possession of the facts.”

Silent Spring (cont.) Need for scientific research: “All of these questions urgently require the precise answers that only extensive research can provide, yet funds for such purposes are pitifully small….When will the public become sufficiently aware of the facts to demand such action?”

Silent Spring (cont.) Importance of scientific research: “A truly extraordinary variety of alternatives to the chemical control of insects is available. Some are already in use and have achieved brilliant success. Others are in the stage of laboratory testing. Still others are little more than ideas in the minds imaginative scientists, waiting for the opportunity to put them to test.”

Important to understand nature: “All [alternative to chemicals] have these in common: they are biological solutions, based on understanding of the mechanisms they seek to control, and of the whole fabric of life to which these organisms belong.”

Silent Spring (cont.) Science and technology: “The ‘control of nature’ is a phrase conceived in arrogance, born of the Neanderthal age of biology and philosophy, when it was supposed that nature exists for the convenience of man. The concepts and practices of applied entomology for the most part date from that Stone Age of science.” “It is our alarming misfortune that so primitive a science has armed itself with the most modern and terrible weapons, and that in turning them against the insects it has also turned them against the earth.”

President’s Science Advisory Committee First constituted in the Executive Office of the President in the aftermath of the Korean War in 1951 Reconstitute into the White House in 1957 when Eisenhower sought to respond to the Sputnik crisis PSAC helped Eisenhower organize space program, initiate nuclear test ban, and evaluate military technology

Eisenhower on PSAC White House, December 1960: The President said that he had a deep sense of obligation to PSAC. He has put science advice into more and more subjects of national policy. PSAC holds great influence in our federal system. Personal gratification; “most impressive” and “valuable” work; “stimulation of thought”; “broadening and deepening of understanding.” Said later: His science “wizards” helped him control the arms and space races.

PSAC and Technological Skepticism PSAC’s importance: Not their advice on what technology could do, but on what it could not do. Technological skepticism: PSAC recognized the limits of what a given technology could accomplish in the broad social and political environment and advocated instead basic scientific research as a precondition for any technological solution. It manifested itself most clearly in PSAC’s evaluation of military technology, space program, nuclear arms control, and its report on “Uses of Pesticides” in response to Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in the 1963.

PSAC, Kennedy, and Silent Spring USDA, chemical companies and pest control scientists attacked Carson for exaggerating the harms of pesticides: “damage control”; “The main problem is Miss Carson.” Kennedy and PSAC were sympathetic to Carson’s concern Kennedy press conference in August 1962: federal government to respond to Silent Spring, specifically Federal Council for Science and Technology and PSAC

PSAC as Environmental Experts Cranberry crisis of 1959 Jerome Wiesner: Presidential science advisor, PSAC chairman, director of the White House Office of Science and Technology, chairman of the Federal Council for Science and Technology Wiesner came from MIT and helped Kennedy to end nuclear test in the air; later visited China in 1970s PSAC on cranberry crisis of 1959; radiation debate; new field, no experts

PSAC Panel on Life Science Colin M. MacLeod, a pioneer in molecular biology at New York University was chairman. Panel included prominent scientists, such as James Watson of Harvard. Critics charged that they were not experts on pest control, but that’s not their job There was no experts on the environmental effects of pesticides MacLeod: “the magnitude of this problem is going to require a distinct reorientation on the part of many.”

Carson meets PSAC, 1963 Believing that “perhaps it’s a chance to straighten out some thinking,” Carson met with PSAC panel for nearly a day on January 26, 1963 She impressed the panel members as being more moderate and sensible than they expected from reading some of the more dramatic passages in her book

Social Construction of Science Policy PSAC produced first report on pesticides in early 1963 which confirmed Carson’s warning that pesticides represented an unknown and potential serious threat to environmental and human health USDA and FDA attacked it for siding with Rachel Carson and emphasized too much the harmful effects of pesticides USDA: Report “could profoundly damage U. S. agriculture” and “lead to a breakdown of public confidence in control programs, pesticide use, research scientists and their findings, governmental regulations of pesticides, and the safety and wholesomeness of our food supply.” Interior supported the report and demanded regulatory power.

Compromise and Principles The PSAC panel agreed that inter-state and international food was safe but not necessarily within the state. PSAC further rejected the USDA’s request to remove the only passage in the report where they paid a quiet but warm tribute to Rachel Carson’s work: “Public literature and the experiences of Panel members indicated that, until the publication of ‘Silent Spring’ by Rachel Carson, people were generally unaware of the toxicity of pesticides.” The USDA: “such a reference to a commercially available publication is inappropriate in a scientific report.” PSAC: The Panel members felt that “it would be a deliberate slight if they did not make reference to the book.”

PSAC Report on Pesticides Recognizing "the use of pesticides must be continued" for food production and control of diseases, the report focused on the unknown hazards of pesticides, especially in low dosages and emphasized, as did Carson, that the pesticide problem was only one of many that threatened the environment. The public had a need to know even as the problems admitted of no easy technological fix, the panel pointed out: The panel “can suggest ways of avoiding or lessening the hazards, but in the end society must decide, and to do so it must obtain adequate information on which to base its judgments.” Regulatory policy: “The decision is an uncomfortable one which can never be final but must be constantly in flux as circumstances change and knowledge increases.”

Policy Transparency, Public’s Right to Know, Education, and Research “The Panel believes that all data used as a basis for granting registration and establishing tolerances should be published, thus allowing the hypotheses and the validity and reliability of the data to be subjected to critical review by the public and the scientific community.” The PSAC report advocated expanded federal research and public education programs on the effects of pesticides.

Reactions to PSAC Report Scientific publications, such as Science and Chemical and Engineering News, which had both published damning reviews of Carson’s book, now joined the popular press in applauding the report. New evidence about the harmful effects of pesticides contained in the PSAC report and incidents of fish kill due to pesticides in the Mississippi since Silent Spring first appeared must have had an impact. Kennedy: “I have already requested the responsible agencies to implement the recommendations in this report, including the preparation of legislative and technical proposals which I shall submit to the Congress.”

Carson Delighted by PSAC Report “I think no one can read this report and retain a shred of complacency about our situation.” EPA: “Conflict of interest should be eliminated completely”; “The Commission should be made up of citizens of high professional competence in such fields as medicine, genetics, biology, and conservation.” Carson’s positive experience with the PSAC pesticide panel contributed to the idea itself.

Significance of PSAC Report In retrospect, the real contribution of the PSAC report was probably its critical role in changing public and official opinion of the environmental problems discussed in Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring. By the weight of its own investigation, its scientific prestige, and its proximity to presidential power, the PSAC group helped to certify the seriousness of Carson’s seemingly radical claims of environmental cataclysms.

美国现代环境运动的开启： 卡尔逊《寂静的春天》（1962） 美国总统科学顾问委员会报告. 《农药的使用》（１９６３） 美国现代环境运动的开启： 卡尔逊《寂静的春天》（1962） 美国总统科学顾问委员会报告 《农药的使用》（１９６３） 《恢复我们的环境质量》（１９６５） 卡逊和总统科顾委同持技术怀疑论

卡逊, 1907-1964 海洋生物学家和科普作家 曾任职于美国鱼类与野生生物署， 1936-1952 写过关于海洋的畅销书，尤以《我们周围的海洋》(The Sea around US) (1952)为最有名 １９５８－１９６２写作《寂静的春天》(Silent Spring) 被称为改变世界历史的几本书之一 开启了现代美国环境运动

《寂静的春天》的技术怀疑论 选自卡逊著，吕瑞兰译，《寂静的春天》，吉林人民出版社，1997版： “控制自然”这个词是一个妄自尊大的想象产物，是当生物学和哲学还处于低级幼稚阶段时的产物，当时人们设想中的“控制自然”就是要大自然为人们的方便有利而存在。 应用昆虫学。。。这样一门如此原始的科学却己经被用最现代化、最可怕的化学武器武装起来了； 这些武器在被用来对付昆虫之余，已转过来威胁着我们整个的大地了，这真是我们的巨大不幸。

总统科顾委的技术怀疑论 选译自《农药的使用》： “我们必须更彻底的了解这些化学物品的性能，以及它们对各生物系统，包括人类的长远影响。 “我们小组的各项建议是以这些方面的需求为目标的，以使得我们能更审慎的使用这些农药或其他控制病虫害的方法，以求得冒最小的风险来达到最大的增益。 “这个小组可以建议如何避免或减少风险，但最终社会必须来做出决定，然而社会要做决定必须占有足够的信息才能做出判断。 “小组认为，应该发表所有那些用来决断是否颁发注册或设定允许残留量的数据，这可以让公众和科学共同体来核查那些假设和数据的有效性和可靠性。 “公众文献和小组成员的经历显示，在雷切尔-卡逊的《寂静的春天》发表之前，人们一般不知道农药的毒性”。

卡逊与总统科顾委 卡逊唤起公众的环境意识，而PSAC改变了科学共同体的意识，把这个问题转化为政府和总统层面的公共政策 二者都强调： 要控制自然先要理解自然 科学是理解自然的必由之路 技术是必要的，但盲目技术乐观主义有危害性 公众的“知的权利”／民主的重要性

科学、技术、与环境 卡逊和总统科顾委皆非反科学或反技术 二者皆希望公众了解技术的局限性，并倡导合适技术（appropriate technology) 科学研究是防止技术滥用或破坏自然的重要环节 在一个技术乐观的时代更需要专业、独立的专家来提醒我们有必要对技术保持怀疑态度

美国政府第一个综合环境报告 总统科顾委在《农药的使用》研究基础上提出综合研究环境问题 约翰逊总统１９６４年提出的“伟大社会”计划一部分 民间环保运动非常重要，但要真正改变现状必须在公共政策上入手 总统科顾委１９６４－１９６５年完成《恢复我们的环境质量》(Restoring the Quality of Our Environment) 报告 美国现代环境史上的一个里程碑：第一个综合环境报告 www.presidency.ucsb.edu: 1965 President Johnson publicly announced the possibility of global warming in a special message to Congress

1965年报告的内容 联邦政府首先应减少各部门操作中的污染排放 制定措施，尤其是经济鼓励措施，来促使全国上下减少污染 加强环保方面的研究和人才培养 11个分组，包括：环境人力资源，污染对人的影响，对其他生物系统的影响，二氧化碳的温室效应，土壤污染，病虫害控制，各种废物处理。 提出一个没有污染的环境，就像教育一样，应该是一个基本人权 100多个建议 提议污染税 零污染车辆

1965年PSAC报告：全球变暖的警钟 “到2000年，大气层中的二氧化碳将比现在的含量增加25%” “这将如此改变大气层的热平衡，以至于气候会发生明显的变化，而这变化将是局部甚至全国性的措施所不能控制的” 建议加强这方面的研究 提议采取能够防止或减缓这个趋势的一些措施 包括向低碳排放的能源转移 约翰逊总统1965年2月向国会提交“关于自然美丽的特殊国会咨文” “通过放射性物质和燃烧化石燃料而产生的与日递增的二氧化碳，我们这代人已经在全球范围上改变了大气层的构成”.

为什么没有马上采取行动？ 对报告和总统咨文有一些报道，但不显著 当时连科学家也承认，问题还不是特别清楚 不像其他污染问题如水污染、空气污染那么迫切 至少下意识上可能认为将来肯定会找到技术措施解决问题 越南战争很快就占据了约翰逊和整个国家的精力，无暇顾及全球变暖问题

Science, Technology, and Environment Neither Carson nor PSAC was anti-science or anti-technology They wanted the public to recognize the limits of any technological solutions and advocate the use of appropriate technologies They advocated scientific research as a way to prevent the abuse of technologies or nature itself Technological skepticism by competent experts is still needed in our age of new technological enthusiasm marked by information and bio technologies.

奥巴马在竞选中得到科学家的支持 前国家卫生院长，诺贝尔奖获得者Harold Varmus组织奥巴马竞选科学家顾问小组(http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/09/obama-campaign.html) 得到61的诺贝尔奖获得者的支持 在www.sciencedebate2008.org发表最早的关于其科技政策的论述 许诺在白宫重新建立科学的地位 提出绿色经济，主张2050年把温室气体排放于1990年相比减少80%

奥巴马在竞选中许诺重建科学在白宫的地位 “我们只有通过加强科学，技术，和创新，才能实现事关大局的各项国家目标。对科技的投入会促进经济的增长；创造数百万的高技术，高薪资的工作，使得美国工人领先于全球经济；改进所有美国人的生活品质；增进我们的国防”。 “洁能技术能帮助我们结束我们对外国石油的依赖，节制全球变暖”。 “生物医学技术的进步能给我们提供各种各样的用来检测，预防，和治疗疾病的方法，救治生命”。 “越来越深入地探索未知，扩展人类的知识前沿是美国立国的核心”。 “我们需要终止布什当局对科学的战争—它让意识形态践踏科学探索，让政治来取代专家意见”。 （www.barackobama.com/pdf/issues/FactSheetScience.pdf）

当选以后：奥巴马重建科学 重建科学的完整性 联邦对基础研究投资10年内增加一倍 全国重视科学教育和训练 鼓励美国创新 面对21世纪“大挑战”： 向低碳、零石油经济转型 所有美国人都能享受长寿、健康的生活 保障国家安全、消除新兴威胁

奥巴马：科学是关键 “无论是利用科学来缓慢全球变暖；或是用技术来保护我们的士兵、来抗御生物恐袭和大规模杀伤武器；或是以创新来重造我们的工业、来创造二十一世纪就业机会—今天，比以往任何时候，科学更是我们星球生存、我们国家的安全和繁荣的关键。 “该是我们把科学再一次放在我们的日程表的首位的时候了，再一次重建美国作为世界科技领袖地位的时候了”

奥巴马：科学的价值 政府应该尊重科学过程的完整性 重要的是自由和公开的探索 “需要的是倾听我们的科学家们要说什么，尽管他们的话可能是逆耳的—尤其是当他们的话是逆耳的时候”

霍尔德恩：奥巴马科学顾问关注全球变暖 奥巴马称霍尔德恩：“一个物理学家，以其气候、能源方面的工作而著名。。。是我们的时代就气候变化发出最充满激情、最锲而不舍的一个声音”。

朱棣文：能源与环境 奥巴马：“我们知道， 在二十一世纪，我们的经济和国家安全的未来是与这个挑战分不开的：能源” 奥巴马：“我们知道，　在二十一世纪，我们的经济和国家安全的未来是与这个挑战分不开的：能源” “朱棣文博士是一个获诺贝尔奖的物理学家，一直在引领我们国家发展新的节能的努力。 “作为一个科学家、老师、行政管理者，他都是一个开拓者，并在近年来领导伯克利国家实验室来寻求新的替代、可重生能源。 “在我们要把这个［新能源］追求变成能源部的主导目的时，棣文成为我们的下一任能源部长的不二人选。 “能源部的科学家们将会有一个杰出的同行来领导他们。 “他的任命应该给所有人发出这么一个信号，即我的政府将重视科学，我们将以事实为基础来做出决策，而且我们知道，知道事实的真相后就必须采取行动”．

What Can We Expect from the New [Obama] Administration Richard Olson and Zuoyue Wang, “What Can We Expect from the New [Obama] Administration?” Harvey Mudd College Magazine, Winter 2008, 16-17. Co-authored by Richard Olson. ?” Harvey Mudd College Magazine, Winter 2008, 16-17.

奥尔森与王作跃的分析：奥巴马竞选的科技环境主张 奥巴马竞选主张 “Critical national goals can only be met if we renew our commitment to science, technology and innovation. 只有重建我们对科学、技术、和创新的许诺，我们才能实现重大的国家目标。 “Investments in science and technology foster economic growth; create millions of high-tech, high-wage jobs that allow American workers to lead the global economy; improve the quality of life for all Americans; and strengthen our national security. 对科技的投入可以促进经济增长；创造数百万高技术、高薪的工作机会，从而使得美国工人成为全球经济的领头人；改善所有们国人的生活品质；和加强我们的国防。 “Clean energy technologies can help end our dependence on foreign oil and combat global warming. Advances in biomedical research can deliver life-saving ways to diagnose, prevent and treat diseases.节能技术能帮助我们停止依赖外国石油、应对全球变暖。生物医学上的研究进展能提供诊断、预防、和医治疾病的方法，从而救治生命。 “And the urge to probe more deeply into the unknown and expand the frontiers of human knowledge is at the core of the American experience.... We need to end the Bush administration’s war on science where ideology trumps scientific inquiry and politics replaces expert opinion.一种想要深入探索未知、扩展人类知识的强烈愿望，是美国传统的一个核心部分。。。。我们应该终止布什政府对科学的宣战，这个宣战让意识形态统治了科学探索、让政治取代了专家意见。。。。

奥尔森和王作跃分析奥巴马的能源和环境政策 理想主义和现实主义的结合：十年内拨款一千五百亿美元来发展和启用节能技术，一方面美国刺激经济发展的重要措施，一方面减少对外国石油的依赖，一方面减缓全球变暖。 朱棣文的任命：既是一个备受尊重的科学家，又是一个主张用新能源政策来减缓全球变暖的积极分子 奥巴马并不会完全放弃石油、煤炭、和核能，但他主张改进这些老能源 同时他也没有向很多环保积极分子所建议的那样，以炭税的方式来达到减炭的目的，而是采用稍微有些保守、利用市场体制的“cap-and-trade” （总量限制炭权交易体系 ），希望能借此能在2030年把温室气体排放量降到比1990年排放量低80%。 王作跃：在全球变暖上进行中美合作是奥巴马的一个重大决策。

奥巴马当选后：气候变化是我们最大的挑战 2008年12月15日宣布能源和环境方面的人选： “只有一个问题比所有这些急迫的危险更严重，那就是气候变化的长期威胁” “我们必须认识到全球气候变化的解决方案必须是全球参与的。 “当我们努力减排时，我们必须努力促成国际解决方案，以使得每一个国家都尽到自己的义务。 “当我们这样做时，我们将不仅是在谈判桌上采取主动－－我们将会一如既往以创新和发现带领大家，以艰苦工作和齐心协力来带领大家。”

奥巴马就职以后的科技环境政策: 就职演说 2009.1.20: We will restore science to its rightful place and wield technology‘s wonders to raise health care’s quality and lower its cost. We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories. And we will transform our schools and colleges and universities to meet the demands of a new age. All this we can do. All this we will do. 我们会把科学恢复到它应有的位置

干细胞研究和科学完整性 2009.3.9：放松对干细胞研究的限制，并签署命令，要求联邦政府各部门尊重科学和事实，不允许以意识形态歪曲科学发现，并要求联邦政府尽可能公开所有决策中用到的科学信息，要求政策制定对公众公开，并透明化

Recovery Act复苏法案/新预算 2009.2.17：“Even beyond energy, from the National Institutes of Health to the National Science Foundation, this recovery act represents the biggest increase in basic research funding in the long history of America‘s noble endeavor to better understand our world. And just as President Kennedy sparked an explosion of innovation when he set America’s sights on the Moon, I hope this investment will ignite our imagination once more, spurring new discoveries and breakthroughs in science, in medicine, in energy, to make our economy stronger and our Nation more secure and our planet safer for our children. 越来越深刻地理解我们的世界，这是一个崇高的追求，美国在这方面是有着悠久的历史的。而在这个历史中，这个复苏法案代表了基础研究资助的最大幅度的增长。 新预算增加科技投入； NSF 16% 增幅

奥巴马在美国国家科学院的演讲 2009.4.27：“Necessity of Science” 科学的必要性 任命总统科技顾问委员会 放一段演讲录相

全球变暖问题 有人说奥巴马政府强调全球变暖问题是为了限制中国的发展而设下的一个“陷阱” 实际上，中美之间正在围绕着气候变化问题进行磋商谈判，在很多方面是既有冲突又有相合的地方，但不是一个简单的谁为谁设立“陷阱” 问题。 另外，就这个问题还可以从下面几点来考虑： 中国科学家和政府早在1980年代就已经开始重视全球变暖问题的研究，从自己的自然条件的变化，尤其是水资源问题，看到气候变化的严重性，并在1990年代和近年来采取了一系列的措施来应对气候变化。 从目前来看，奥巴马政府一改小布什时期的政策，确实非常重视全球变暖问题，这既是为了美国也是为了全球的发展。他任命朱棣文为能源部长，很大程度就是因为朱棣文一直在呼吁各国、包括美国政府和科学家重视全球变暖问题，并身体力行的开展这方面的研究。 很多科学家都已经意识到，即使全球变暖不是一个问题，所有那些为应对变暖所采取的措施并非浪费：清洁、替代能源、和改进能源效益是在石油资源有限的条件下经济发展的必由之路；减少碳排放会帮助清洁空气，减少疾病；更多的森林得到保护，增进生物多样性；等等。（”What’s New,” 7/25/08; IPCC4, p. 59)所以中国（或美国）之所以要采取措施应对全球变暖，并非是做给别人看的，而是出于自身的切身利益。当然，全球变暖是一个全球问题，必须要世界各国，尤其是美中两个排放大国，一起采取行动。

朱棣文：经济危机不是忽略能源问题和全球变暖的借口

结语 一个国家的科技与教育政策的制定与实施取决于它的政治经济制度，历史文化传统，和某个特定时期的科技教育与经济，社会，和政府的互动． 1957年的卫星危机对美国科教政策产生的影响，一方面是冷战的结果，另一方面也是受到艾森豪威尔与PSAC在技术怀疑论上的共识的导向。 相比之下，小布什总统对9/11危机的处理，包括发动伊战，在一定程度上是受到高涨的技术乐观主义的影响，是以意识形态压制科学异议的后果 而这些政策的失误也可以说明我们今天在公共政策的制定上仍然需要有像PSAC那样的，能够对技术做出专业的，独立的，批判性的判断的科学家。 奥巴马的政见之所以得到科学家的支持，除了他承诺重视科学、增加科技投入外，更重要的是他强调政府应该倾听科学的声音，支持“自由的和公开的”科学探索 美国当代科教历史告诉我们：自由的讨论，允许异议的声音是一个现代民主国家制定明智的科教政策的关键所在。

Worksheets How did China react to Sputnik and how did the Soviets react to American satellites? China applauded it Mao Zedong: East Win prevailed over West Wind Mao went to Moscow and later launched the Great Leap Forward

人民日报1958.02.03第5版 作者：新华社苏联科学院电贺美科学家 新华社２日讯  据塔斯社莫斯科１日电：苏联科学院打电报给美国科学家，祝贺发射人造地球卫星成功。     在发给美国国立科学院院长布朗克和美国国际地球物理年全国委员会主席卡普兰的电报中说：苏联科学院祝贺美国科学家和工程师成功地发射了人造地球卫 星。“我们曾经坚信，在试验发射人造卫星过程中所遇到的科学和技术上的困难，定将为根据国际地球物理年计划参加制造卫星的美国科学家所克服。”     电报说：“苏联科学院表示相信，正在绕地球旋转的苏联卫星和美国卫星将会以新的发现把科学丰富起来，并将加强我们两国科学家为和平目的而进行的合作。”     在电报上签字的是苏联科学院院长ｎｉè＠①斯米扬诺夫和国际地球物理年科学研究各部门统筹委员会主席巴尔金。(人民数据库资料) 　　字库未存字注释： 　　　　＠①原字氵加日下加工

Revising Sentence “It’s really a shame that there are so many similarities between the society of today’s China and the society depicted in “Modern Times”, which share the common feature of maximizing the benefits of capitalists and overlooking the welfare of workers”